Table of contents

We study the variability of major atmospheric absorption features in the disk-integrated spectra of Earth with future application to Earth-analogs in mind, concentrating on the diurnal timescale. We first analyze observations of Earth provided by the EPOXI mission, and find 5%–20% fractional variation of the absorption depths of H₂O and O₂ bands, two molecules that have major signatures in the observed range. From a correlation analysis with the cloud map data from the Earth Observing Satellite (EOS), we find that their variation pattern is primarily due to the uneven cloud cover distribution. In order to account for the observed variation quantitatively, we consider a simple opaque cloud model, which assumes that the clouds totally block the spectral influence of the atmosphere below the cloud layer, equivalent to assuming that the incident light is completely scattered at the cloud top level. The model is reasonably successful, and reproduces the EPOXI data from the pixel-level EOS cloud/water vapor data. A difference in the diurnal variability patterns of H₂O and O₂ bands is ascribed to the differing vertical and horizontal distribution of those molecular species in the atmosphere. On Earth, the inhomogeneous distribution of atmospheric water vapor is due to the existence of its exchange with liquid and solid phases of H₂O on the planet's surface on a timescale short compared with atmospheric mixing times. If such differences in variability patterns were detected in spectra of Earth-analogs, it would provide the information on the inhomogeneous composition of their atmospheres.

Theoretical rotational quenching cross sections and rate coefficients of ortho- and para-H₂O due to collisions with He atoms are presented. The complete angular momentum close-coupling approach as well as the coupled-states approximation for the angular momentum decoupling was applied to solve the scattering problem for a large range of rotationally excited states of water. Results are obtained for quenching from initial levels 1_{1, 0}, 2_{1, 2}, 2_{2, 1}, 3_{0, 3}, 3_{1, 2}, 3_{2, 1}, 4_{1, 4}, 3_{3, 0}, and 4_{2, 3} of ortho-H₂O and from initial levels 1_{1, 1}, 2_{0, 2}, 2_{1, 1}, 2_{2, 0}, 3_{1, 3}, 3_{2, 2}, 4_{0, 4}, 4_{1, 3}, and 3_{3, 1} of para-H₂O for kinetic energies from 10⁻⁵ to 10⁴ cm⁻¹. State-to-state and total deexcitation cross sections and rate coefficients for temperatures between 0.1 and 3000 K are reported. The present state-to-state rate coefficients are found to be in good agreement with previous results obtained by Green and coworkers at high temperatures, but significant discrepancies are obtained at lower temperatures likely due to differences in the adopted potential energy surfaces. Astrophysical applications of the current rate coefficients are briefly discussed.

Local luminous infrared (IR) galaxies (LIRGs) have both high star formation rates (SFR) and a high AGN (Seyfert and AGN/starburst composite) incidence. Therefore, they are ideal candidates to explore the co-evolution of black hole (BH) growth and star formation (SF) activity, not necessarily associated with major mergers. Here, we use Spitzer/IRS spectroscopy of a complete volume-limited sample of local LIRGs (distances of <78 Mpc). We estimate typical BH masses of 3 × 10⁷ M_☉ using [Ne iii] 15.56 μm and optical [O iii] λ5007 gas velocity dispersions and literature stellar velocity dispersions. We find that in a large fraction of local LIRGs, the current SFR is taking place not only in the inner nuclear ∼1.5 kpc region, as estimated from the nuclear 11.3 μm PAH luminosities, but also in the host galaxy. We next use the ratios between the SFRs and BH accretion rates (BHAR) to study whether the SF activity and BH growth are contemporaneous in local LIRGs. On average, local LIRGs have SFR to BHAR ratios higher than those of optically selected Seyferts of similar active galactic nucleus (AGN) luminosities. However, the majority of the IR-bright galaxies in the revised-Shapley-Ames Seyfert sample behave like local LIRGs. Moreover, the AGN incidence tends to be higher in local LIRGs with the lowest SFRs. All of this suggests that in local LIRGs there is a distinct IR-bright star-forming phase taking place prior to the bulk of the current BH growth (i.e., AGN phase). The latter is reflected first as a composite and then as a Seyfert, and later as a non-LIRG optically identified Seyfert nucleus with moderate SF in its host galaxy.

We used daily full-disk Ca ii 854.2 nm magnetograms from the Synoptic Optical Long Term Investigations of the Sun (SOLIS) facility to study the chromospheric magnetic field from 2006 April through 2009 November. We determined and corrected previously unidentified zero offsets in the SOLIS magnetograms. By tracking the disk passages of stable unipolar regions, the measured net flux densities were found to systematically decrease from the disk center to the limb by a factor of about two. This decrease was modeled using a thin flux tube model with a difference in signal formation height between the center and limb sides. Comparison of photospheric and chromospheric observations shows that their differences are largely due to horizontal spreading of magnetic flux with increasing height. The north polar magnetic field decreased nearly linearly with time during our study period while the south polar field was nearly constant. We used the annual change in the viewing angle of the polar regions to estimate the radial and meridional components of the polar fields and found that the south polar fields were tilted away from the pole. Synoptic maps of the chromospheric radial flux density distribution were used as boundary conditions for extrapolation of the field from the chromosphere into the corona. A comparison of modeled and observed coronal hole boundaries and coronal streamer positions showed better agreement when using the chromospheric rather than the photospheric synoptic maps.

Propene (CH₃CHCH₂), detected in the cold core TMC-1, is a surprisingly saturated (H-rich) species for observation in such regions. In a recently proposed gas-phase formation mechanism, interstellar propene is produced from its protonated precursor C₃H⁺₇ (CH₃CHCH⁺₃) via a dissociative recombination process. The precursor ion C₃H⁺₇ is itself produced via two consecutive radiative association reactions involving H₂ starting from the isomer of C₃H⁺₃ with a linear carbon backbone (CH₂CCH⁺). Initial calculations showed that the radiative association reactions are efficient enough to allow the production of an abundance of propene equal to that observed. However, a combination of experiments and more refined quantum chemical ab initio calculations reported here does not corroborate the initial result. Indeed, from both of these approaches, we have learned that the radiative association reactions leading to protonated propene do not occur efficiently at interstellar temperatures due to activation energy barriers. The result is that propene cannot be produced efficiently by the suggested gas-phase synthetic route. It is still difficult to say, however, that no suitable gas-phase syntheses for propene can occur in cold cores such as TMC-1.

How do magnetohydrodynamic waves travel from the fully ionized corona, into and through the underlying partially ionized chromosphere, and what are the consequences for solar flares? To address these questions, we have developed a two-fluid model (of plasma and neutrals) and used it to perform one-dimensional simulations of Alfvén waves in a solar atmosphere with realistic density and temperature structure. Studies of a range of solar features (faculae, plage, penumbra, and umbra) show that energy transmission from corona to chromosphere can exceed 20% of incident energy for wave periods of 1 s or less. Damping of waves in the chromosphere depends strongly on wave frequency: waves with periods 10 s or longer pass through the chromosphere with relatively little damping, however, for periods of 1 s or less, a substantial fraction (37%–100%) of wave energy entering the chromosphere is damped by ion–neutral friction in the mid- and upper chromosphere, with electron resistivity playing some role in the lower chromosphere and in umbras. We therefore conclude that Alfvénic waves with periods of a few seconds or less are capable of heating the chromosphere during solar flares, and speculate that they could also contribute to electron acceleration or exciting sunquakes.

Observations from the EUV Imaging Spectrometer (EIS) on board Hinode have revealed outflows and non-thermal line broadening in low intensity regions at the edges of active regions (ARs). We use data from Hinode's EIS, Solar Dynamic Observatory's Atmospheric Imaging Assembly and Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager, and the Transition Region and Coronal Explorer instrument to investigate the boundaries of arcade-like AR cores for NOAA ARs 11112, 10978, and 9077. A narrow, low intensity region that is observed at the core's periphery as a dark band shows outflows and increased spectral line broadening. This dark band is found to exist for days and appears between the bright coronal loop structures of different coronal topologies. We find a case where the dark band region is formed between the magnetic field from emerging flux and the field of the pre-existing flux. A magnetic field extrapolation indicates that this dark band is coincident with the spine lines or magnetic separatrices in the extrapolated field. This occurs over unipolar regions where the brightened coronal field is separated in connectivity and topology. This separation does not appear to be infinitesimal and an initial estimate of the minimum distance of separation is found to be ≈1.5–3.5 Mm.

We present a sample of three large near-relativistic (>50 keV) electron events observed in 2001 by both the ACE and the Ulysses spacecraft, when Ulysses was at high-northern latitudes (>60°) and close to 2 AU. Despite the large latitudinal distance between the two spacecraft, electrons injected near the Sun reached both heliospheric locations. All three events were associated with large solar flares, strong decametric type II radio bursts and accompanied by wide (>212°) and fast (>1400 km s⁻¹) coronal mass ejections (CMEs). We use advanced interplanetary transport simulations and make use of the directional intensities observed in situ by the spacecraft to infer the electron injection profile close to the Sun and the interplanetary transport conditions at both low and high latitudes. For the three selected events, we find similar interplanetary transport conditions at different heliolatitudes for a given event, with values of the mean free path ranging from 0.04 AU to 0.27 AU. We find differences in the injection profiles inferred for each spacecraft. We investigate the role that sector boundaries of the heliospheric current sheet (HCS) have on determining the characteristics of the electron injection profiles. Extended injection profiles, associated with coronal shocks, are found if the magnetic footpoints of the spacecraft lay in the same magnetic sector as the associated flare, while intermittent sparse injection episodes appear when the spacecraft footpoints are in the opposite sector or a wrap in the HCS bounded the CME structure.

Astrophysical disks with localized radial structure, such as protoplanetary disks containing dead zones or gaps due to disk–planet interaction, may be subject to the non-axisymmetric Rossby wave instability (RWI) that leads to vortex formation. The linear instability has recently been demonstrated in three-dimensional (3D) barotropic disks. It is the purpose of this study to generalize the 3D linear problem to include an energy equation, thereby accounting for baroclinity in three dimensions. Linear stability calculations are presented for radially structured, vertically stratified, geometrically thin disks with non-uniform entropy distribution in both directions. Polytropic equilibria are considered but adiabatic perturbations assumed. The unperturbed disk has a localized radial density bump, making it susceptible to the RWI. The linearized fluid equations are solved numerically as a partial differential equation eigenvalue problem. Emphasis on the ease of method implementation is given. It is found that when the polytropic index is fixed and adiabatic index increased, non-uniform entropy has negligible effect on the RWI growth rate, but pressure and density perturbation magnitudes near a pressure enhancement increase away from the midplane. The associated meridional flow is also qualitatively changed from homentropic calculations. Meridional vortical motion is identified in the nonhomentropic linear solution, as well as in a nonlinear global hydrodynamic simulation of the RWI in an initially isothermal disk evolved adiabatically. Numerical results suggest that buoyancy forces play an important role in the internal flow of Rossby vortices.

We present an observational study of the protostellar core B335 harboring a low-mass Class 0 source. The observations of the H¹³CO⁺(J = 1–0) line emission were carried out using the Nobeyama 45 m telescope and Nobeyama Millimeter Array. Our combined image of the interferometer and single-dish data depicts detailed structures of the dense envelope within the core. We found that the core has a radial density profile of n(r)∝r^−p and a reliable difference in the power-law indices between the outer and inner regions of the core: p ≈ 2 for r ≳ 4000 AU and p ≈ 1.5 for r ≲ 4000 AU. The dense core shows a slight overall velocity gradient of ∼1.0 km s⁻¹ over the scale of 20, 000 AU across the outflow axis. We believe that this velocity gradient represents a solid-body-like rotation of the core. The dense envelope has a quite symmetrical velocity structure with a remarkable line broadening toward the core center, which is especially prominent in the position–velocity diagram across the outflow axis. The model calculations of position–velocity diagrams do a good job of reproducing observational results using the collapse model of an isothermal sphere in which the core has an inner free-fall region and an outer region conserving the conditions at the formation stage of a central stellar object. We derived a central stellar mass of ∼0.1 M_☉, and suggest a small inward velocity, $v_{r \ge r_{\rm inf}}\sim 0\,{\rm km\,s^{-1}}$ in the outer core at ≳ 4000 AU. We concluded that our data can be well explained by gravitational collapse with a quasi-static initial condition, such as Shu's model, or by the isothermal collapse of a marginally critical Bonnor–Ebert sphere.

We propose a novel method for determining the ages of low-mass, pre-main-sequence stellar systems using the apsidal motion of low-mass detached eclipsing binaries. The apsidal motion of a binary system with an eccentric orbit provides information regarding the interior structure constants of the individual stars. These constants are related to the normalized stellar interior density distribution and can be extracted from the predictions of stellar evolution models. We demonstrate that low-mass, pre-main-sequence stars undergoing radiative core contraction display rapidly changing interior structure constants (greater than 5% per 10 Myr) that, when combined with observational determinations of the interior structure constants (with 5%–10% precision), allow for a robust age estimate. This age estimate, unlike those based on surface quantities, is largely insensitive to the surface layer where effects of magnetic activity are likely to be most pronounced. On the main sequence, where age sensitivity is minimal, the interior structure constants provide a valuable test of the physics used in stellar structure models of low-mass stars. There are currently no known systems where this technique is applicable. Nevertheless, the emphasis on time domain astronomy with current missions, such as Kepler, and future missions, such as LSST, has the potential to discover systems where the proposed method will be observationally feasible.

We present results from a ≈100 ks Chandra observation of the 2QZ Cluster 1004+00 structure at z = 2.23 (hereafter 2QZ Clus). 2QZ Clus was originally identified as an overdensity of four optically-selected QSOs at z = 2.23 within a 15 × 15 arcmin² region. Narrow-band imaging in the near-IR (within the K band) revealed that the structure contains an additional overdensity of 22 z = 2.23 Hα-emitting galaxies (HAEs), resulting in 23 unique z = 2.23 HAEs/QSOs (22 within the Chandra field of view). Our Chandra observations reveal that three HAEs in addition to the four QSOs harbor powerfully accreting supermassive black holes (SMBHs), with 2–10 keV luminosities of ≈(8–60) × 10⁴³ erg s⁻¹ and X-ray spectral slopes consistent with unobscured active galactic nucleus (AGN). Using a large comparison sample of 210 z = 2.23 HAEs in the Chandra-COSMOS field (C-COSMOS), we find suggestive evidence that the AGN fraction increases with local HAE galaxy density. The 2QZ Clus HAEs reside in a moderately overdense environment (a factor of ≈2 times over the field), and after excluding optically-selected QSOs, we find that the AGN fraction is a factor of ≈3.5^+3.8_−2.2 times higher than C-COSMOS HAEs in similar environments. Using stacking analyses of the Chandra data and Herschel SPIRE observations at 250 μm, we respectively estimate mean SMBH accretion rates ($\dot{M}_{\rm BH}$) and star formation rates (SFRs) for the 2QZ Clus and C-COSMOS samples. We find that the mean 2QZ Clus HAE stacked X-ray luminosity is QSO-like (L_2-10 keV ≈ [6–10] × 10⁴³ erg s⁻¹), and the implied $\dot{M}_{\rm BH}$/SFR ≈ (1.6–3.2) × 10⁻³ is broadly consistent with the local M_BH/M_⋆ relation and z ≈ 2 X-ray selected AGN. In contrast, the C-COSMOS HAEs are on average an order of magnitude less X-ray luminous and have $\dot{M}_{\rm BH}$/SFR ≈ (0.2–0.4) × 10⁻³, somewhat lower than the local M_BH/M_⋆ relation, but comparable to that found for z ≈ 1–2 star-forming galaxies with similar mean X-ray luminosities. We estimate that a periodic QSO phase with duty cycle ≈2%–8% would be sufficient to bring star-forming galaxies onto the local M_BH/M_⋆ relation. This duty cycle is broadly consistent with the observed C-COSMOS HAE AGN fraction (≈0.4%–2.3%) for powerful AGN with L_X ≳ 10⁴⁴ erg s⁻¹. Future observations of 2QZ Clus will be needed to identify key factors responsible for driving the mutual growth of the SMBHs and galaxies.

We analyze the spectral energy distributions (SEDs) of Lyman break galaxies (LBGs) at z ≃ 1–3 selected using the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) UVIS channel filters. These HST/WFC3 observations cover about 50 arcmin² in the GOODS-South field as a part of the WFC3 Early Release Science program. These LBGs at z ≃ 1–3 are selected using dropout selection criteria similar to high-redshift LBGs. The deep multi-band photometry in this field is used to identify best-fit SED models, from which we infer the following results: (1) the photometric redshift estimate of these dropout-selected LBGs is accurate to within few percent; (2) the UV spectral slope β is redder than at high redshift (z > 3), where LBGs are less dusty; (3) on average, LBGs at z ≃ 1–3 are massive, dustier, and more highly star forming, compared to LBGs at higher redshifts with similar luminosities (0.1L* ≲ L ≲ 2.5L*), though their median values are similar within 1σ uncertainties. This could imply that identical dropout selection technique, at all redshifts, finds physically similar galaxies; and (4) the stellar masses of these LBGs are directly proportional to their UV luminosities with a logarithmic slope of ∼0.46, and star formation rates are proportional to their stellar masses with a logarithmic slope of ∼0.90. These relations hold true—within luminosities probed in this study—for LBGs from z ≃ 1.5 to 5. The star-forming galaxies selected using other color-based techniques show similar correlations at z ≃ 2, but to avoid any selection biases, and for direct comparison with LBGs at z > 3, a true Lyman break selection at z ≃ 2 is essential. The future HST UV surveys, both wider and deeper, covering a large luminosity range are important to better understand LBG properties and their evolution.

We present new results on the kinematics, thermal and ionization state, and spatial distribution of metal-enriched gas in the circumgalactic medium (CGM) of massive galaxies at redshift ∼3, using the Eris suite of cosmological hydrodynamic "zoom-in" simulations. The reference run adopts a blastwave scheme for supernova feedback that produces large-scale galactic outflows, a star formation recipe based on a high gas density threshold, metal-dependent radiative cooling, and a model for the diffusion of metals and thermal energy. The effect of the local UV radiation field is added in post-processing. The CGM (defined as all gas at R > 0.2 R_vir = 10 kpc, where R_vir is the virial radius) contains multiple phases having a wide range of physical conditions, with more than half of its heavy elements locked in a warm-hot component at T > 10⁵ K. Synthetic spectra, generated by drawing sightlines through the CGM, produce interstellar absorption-line strengths of Lyα, C ii, C iv, Si ii, and Si iv as a function of the galactocentric impact parameter (scaled to the virial radius) that are in broad agreement with those observed at high redshift by Steidel et al. The covering factor of absorbing material declines less rapidly with impact parameter for Lyα and C iv compared to C ii, Si iv, and Si ii, with Lyα remaining strong (W_Lyα > 300 mÅ) to ≳ 5 R_vir = 250 kpc. Only about one third of all the gas within R_vir is outflowing. The fraction of sightlines within one virial radius that intercept optically thick, N_H I>10^17.2  cm^-2 material is 27%, in agreement with recent observations by Rudie et al. Such optically thick absorption is shown to trace inflowing "cold" streams that penetrate deep inside the virial radius. The streams, enriched to metallicities above 0.01 solar by previous episodes of star formation in the main host and in nearby dwarfs, are the origin of strong (N_C II>10¹³ cm^-2) C ii absorption with a covering factor of 22% within R_vir and 10% within 2 R_vir. Galactic outflows do not cause any substantial suppression of the cold accretion mode. The central galaxy is surrounded by a large O vi halo, with a typical column density N_O VI ≳ 10¹⁴  cm^-2 and a near unity covering factor maintained all the way out to 150 kpc. This matches the trends recently observed in star-forming galaxies at low redshift by Tumlinson et al. Our zoom-in simulations of this single system appear then to reproduce quantitatively the complex baryonic processes that determine the exchange of matter, energy, and metals between galaxies and their surroundings.

The one-dimensional steady-state problem of thermal escape from a single-component atmosphere of mon- and diatomic gases is studied in the hydrodynamic (blow-off) regime using the direct simulation Monte Carlo method for an evaporative-type condition at the lower boundary. The simulations are performed for various depths into an atmosphere, indicated by a Knudsen number, Kn₀, equal to the ratio of the mean free path of molecules to the radial position of the source surface, ranging from 10 to 10⁻⁵, and for the range of the source Jeans parameter, λ₀, equal to the ratio of gravitational and thermal energies, specific to blow-off. The results of kinetic simulations are compared with the isentropic model (IM) and the Navier–Stokes model. It is shown that the IM can be simplified if formulated in terms of the local Mach number and Jeans parameter. The simulations predict that at Kn₀  <   ∼ 10⁻³ the flow includes a near-surface non-equilibrium Knudsen layer, a zone where the flow can be well approximated by the IM, and a rarefied far field. The corresponding IM solutions, however, only approach Parker's critical solution as λ₀ approaches the upper limit for blow-off. The IM alone is not capable for predicting the flow and requires boundary conditions at the top of the Knudsen layer. For small Kn₀, the scaled escape rate and energy loss rate are found to be independent of λ₀. The simulation results can be scaled to any single-component atmosphere exhibiting blow-off if the external heating above the lower boundary is negligible, in particular, to sublimation-driven atmospheres of Kuiper belt objects.

The energy spectra of galactic cosmic rays carry fundamental information regarding their origin and propagation. These spectra, when measured near Earth, are significantly affected by the solar magnetic field. A comprehensive description of the cosmic radiation must therefore include the transport and modulation of cosmic rays inside the heliosphere. During the end of the last decade, the Sun underwent a peculiarly long quiet phase well suited to study modulation processes. In this paper we present proton spectra measured from 2006 July to 2009 December by PAMELA. The large collected statistics of protons allowed the time variation to be followed on a nearly monthly basis down to 400 MV. Data are compared with a state-of-the-art three-dimensional model of solar modulation.

A model for post asymptotic giant branch bipolar reflection nebulae has been constructed based on a pair of evacuated cavities in a spherical dust envelope. Many of the observed features of bipolar nebulae, including filled bipolar lobes, an equatorial torus, searchlight beams, and a bright central light source, can be reproduced. The effects on orientation and dust densities are studied and comparisons with some observed examples are offered. We suggest that many observed properties of bipolar nebulae are the result of optical effects and any physical modeling of these nebulae has to take these factors into consideration.

We present results from a Spitzer mid-infrared spectroscopy study of a sample of 74 galaxies located in 23 Hickson Compact Groups (HCGs), chosen to be at a dynamically active stage of H i depletion. We find evidence for enhanced warm H₂ emission (i.e., above that associated with UV excitation in star-forming regions) in 14 galaxies (∼20%), with 8 galaxies having extreme values of L(H₂ S(0)-S(3))/L(7.7 μm polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon), in excess of 0.07. Such emission has been seen previously in the compact group HCG 92 (Stephan's Quintet), and was shown to be associated with the dissipation of mechanical energy associated with a large-scale shock caused when one group member collided, at high velocity, with tidal debris in the intragroup medium. Similarly, shock excitation or turbulent heating is likely responsible for the enhanced H₂ emission in the compact group galaxies, since other sources of heating (UV or X-ray excitation from star formation or active galactic nuclei) are insufficient to account for the observed emission. The group galaxies fall predominantly in a region of mid-infrared color–color space identified by previous studies as being connected to rapid transformations in HCG galaxy evolution. Furthermore, the majority of H₂-enhanced galaxies lie in the optical "green valley" between the blue cloud and red sequence, and are primarily early-type disk systems. We suggest that H₂-enhanced systems may represent a specific phase in the evolution of galaxies in dense environments and provide new insight into mechanisms which transform galaxies onto the optical red sequence.

Distance measures on a coherent scale around the sky are required to address the outstanding cosmological problems of the Hubble constant and of departures from the mean cosmic flow. The correlation between galaxy luminosities and rotation rates can be used to determine the distances to many thousands of galaxies in a wide range of environments potentially out to 200 Mpc. Mid-infrared (3.6 μm) photometry with the Spitzer Space Telescope is particularly valuable as a source of luminosities because it provides products of uniform quality across the sky. From a perch above the atmosphere, essentially the total magnitude of targets can be registered in exposures of a few minutes. Extinction is minimal and the flux is dominated by the light from old stars, which is expected to correlate with the mass of the targets.

In spite of the superior photometry, the correlation between mid-infrared luminosities and rotation rates extracted from neutral hydrogen profiles is slightly degraded from the correlation found with I-band luminosities. A color correction recovers a correlation that provides comparable accuracy to that available at the I band (∼20% 1σ in an individual distance) while retaining the advantages identified above. Without color correction, the relation between linewidth and [3.6] magnitudes is M^{b, i, k, a}_[3.6] = −20.34 − 9.74(logWⁱ_mx − 2.5). This description is found with a sample of 213 galaxies in 13 clusters that define the slope and 26 galaxies with Cepheid or tip of the red giant branch distances that define the zero point. A color-corrected parameter $M_{C_{[3.6]}}$ is constructed that has reduced scatter: $M_{C_{[3.6]}} = -20.34 - 9.13 ({\rm log} W_{mx}^{i} -2.5)$. Consideration of the seven calibration clusters beyond 50 Mpc, outside the domain of obvious peculiar velocities, provides a preliminary Hubble constant estimate of H₀ = 74 ± 4 km s⁻¹ Mpc⁻¹.

We present the results of a 21 cm H i survey of 27 local massive gas-rich late-stage mergers and merger remnants with the Robert C. Byrd Green Bank Telescope. These remnants were selected from the Quasar/ULIRG Evolution Study sample of ultraluminous infrared galaxies (ULIRGs; L_{8 − 1000 μm} > 10¹² L_☉) and quasars; our targets are all bolometrically dominated by active galactic nuclei (AGNs) and sample the later phases of the proposed ULIRG-to-quasar evolutionary sequence. We find the prevalence of H i absorption (emission) to be 100% (29%) in ULIRGs with H i detections, 100% (88%) in FIR-strong quasars, and 63% (100%) in FIR-weak quasars. The absorption features are associated with powerful neutral outflows that change from being mainly driven by star formation in ULIRGs to being driven by the AGN in the quasars. These outflows have velocities that exceed 1500 km s⁻¹ in some cases. Unexpectedly, we find polarization-dependent H i absorption in 57% of our spectra (88% and 63% of the FIR-strong and FIR-weak quasars, respectively). We attribute this result to absorption of polarized continuum emission from these sources by foreground H i clouds. About 60% of the quasars displaying polarized spectra are radio-loud, far higher than the ∼10% observed in the general AGN population. This discrepancy suggests that radio jets play an important role in shaping the environments in these galaxies. These systems may represent a transition phase in the evolution of gas-rich mergers into "mature" radio galaxies.

Self-similar and semi-analytical solutions are found for the height-averaged equations governing the dynamical behavior of a polytropic, self-gravitating disk under the effects of winds around the nascent object. In order to describe the time evolution of the system, we adopt a radius-dependent mass loss rate, then highlight its importance on both the traditional α and innovative β models of viscosity prescription. In agreement with some other studies, our solutions represent that the Toomre parameter is less than one in most regions on the β-disk, which indicates that in such disks gravitational instabilities can occur at various distances from the central accretor. So, the β-disk model might provide a good explanation of how the planetary systems form. The purpose of the present work is twofold: examining the structure of a disk with wind in comparison to a no-wind solution and seeing whether the adopted viscosity prescription significantly affects the dynamical behavior of the disk–wind system. We also considered the temperature distribution in our disk by a polytropic condition. The solutions imply that, under our boundary conditions, the radial velocity is larger for α-disks and increases as wind becomes stronger in both viscosity models. Also, we noticed that the disk thickness increases by amplifying the wind or adopting larger values for the polytropic exponent γ. It also may globally decrease if one prescribes a β-model for the viscosity. Moreover, in both viscosity models, the surface density and mass accretion rate diminish as the wind gets stronger or γ increases.

The probability distribution functions (PDFs) of magnetic field variations display strong scale-dependent non-Gaussianity in the turbulent solar wind. This is a typical signature of intermittent turbulence. Physical modeling of the turbulent field variations based on the characteristics of the observed turbulence, including the variability of its power level, produces, free of parameter adjustment and over a broad range of inertial scales, accurate fits of the non-Gaussian PDFs. The effects of phase randomization and time resolution of the Fourier power spectra are further tested to determine which of the phase correlation or the spectral variability is responsible for the strong non-Gaussianity of the observed PDFs of field variations. The periods of enhanced power level are found to be responsible for the non-Gaussian tails of the PDFs.

The zero point of measured photospheric Doppler shifts is uncertain for at least two reasons: instrumental variations (from, e.g., thermal drifts); and the convective blueshift, a known correlation between intensity and upflows. Accurate knowledge of the zero point is, however, useful for (1) improving estimates of the Poynting flux of magnetic energy across the photosphere, and (2) constraining processes underlying flux cancellation, the mutual apparent loss of magnetic flux in closely spaced, opposite-polarity magnetogram features. We present a method to absolutely calibrate line-of-sight (LOS) velocities in solar active regions (ARs) near disk center using three successive vector magnetograms and one Dopplergram coincident with the central magnetogram. It exploits the fact that Doppler shifts measured along polarity inversion lines (PILs) of the LOS magnetic field determine one component of the velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field, and optimizes consistency between changes in LOS flux near PILs and the transport of transverse magnetic flux by LOS velocities, assuming that ideal electric fields govern the magnetic evolution. Previous calibrations fitted the center-to-limb variation of Doppler velocities, but this approach cannot, by itself, account for residual convective shifts at the limb. We apply our method to vector magnetograms of AR 11158, observed by the Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager aboard the Solar Dynamics Observatory, and find clear evidence of offsets in the Doppler zero point in the range of 50–550 m s⁻¹. In addition, we note that a simpler calibration can be determined from an LOS magnetogram and Dopplergram pair from the median Doppler velocity among all near-disk-center PIL pixels. We briefly discuss shortcomings in our initial implementation, and suggest ways to address these. In addition, as a step in our data reduction, we discuss the use of temporal continuity in the transverse magnetic field direction to correct apparently spurious fluctuations in resolution of the 180° ambiguity.

We report intensity and anisotropy measurements of energetic electrons in the energy range of ∼27–∼500 keV as observed with the Wind and Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) spacecraft in 2000 June for several solar energetic particle (SEP) events. The solar sources of the SEP events are inferred from observations from the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory spacecraft. All of the events originate from the western limb active regions (ARs), which are well connected by interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) lines linking the Sun to near-Earth space. The observations on board Wind show bimodal pitch angle distributions (PADs), whereas ACE shows PADs with one peak, as is usually observed for impulsive injection of electrons at the Sun. During the time of observations, Wind was located, upstream of the Earth's bow shock in the dawn-noon sector, at distances of ∼40–∼80 R_E from the Earth, and we infer that it was magnetically connected to the quasi-parallel bow shock. Meanwhile, ACE, orbiting the Sun–Earth libration point L1, was not connected to the bow shock. The electron intensity–time profiles and the energy spectra show that the backstreaming electrons observed at Wind are not of magnetospheric origin. The observations suggest rather that the bidirectional electron fluxes are due to reflection or scattering by an obstacle located at a distance of less than ∼150 R_E in the anti-sunward direction, which is compatible with the obstacle being the Earth's bow shock or magnetosheath.

Manifestations of the solar magnetic activity through periodicities of about 11 and 2 years are now clearly seen in all solar activity indices. In this paper, we add information about the mechanism driving the 2-year period by studying the time and latitudinal properties of acoustic modes that are sensitive probes of the subsurface layers. We use almost 17 years of high-quality resolved data provided by the Global Oscillation Network Group to investigate the solar cycle changes in p-mode frequencies for spherical degrees ℓ from 0 to 120 and 1600 μHz ⩽ν ⩽ 3500 μHz. For both periodic components of solar activity, we locate the origin of the frequency shift in the subsurface layers and find evidence that a sudden enhancement in amplitude occurs in just the last few hundred kilometers. We also show that, in both cases, the size of the shift increases toward equatorial latitudes and from minimum to maximum solar activity, but, in agreement with previous findings, the quasi-biennial periodicity (QBP) causes a weaker shift in mode frequencies and a slower enhancement than that caused by the 11-year cycle. We compare our observational findings with the features predicted by different models, that try to explain the origin of this QBP and conclude that the observed properties could result from the beating between a dipole and quadrupole magnetic configuration of the dynamo.

We present maps of seven young massive molecular clumps within five target regions in C¹⁸O (J = 1–0) line emission, using the Nobeyama 45 m telescope. These clumps, which are not associated with clusters, lie at distances between 0.7 and 2.1 kpc. We find C¹⁸O clumps with radii of 0.5–1.7 pc, masses of 470–4200 M_☉, and velocity widths of 1.4–3.3 km s⁻¹. All of the clumps are massive and approximately in virial equilibrium, suggesting they will potentially form clusters. Three of our target regions are associated with H ii regions (CWHRs), while the other two are unassociated with H ii regions (CWOHRs). The C¹⁸O clumps can be classified into two morphological types: CWHRs with a filamentary or shell-like structure and spherical CWOHRs. The two CWOHRs have systematic velocity gradients. Using the publicly released WISE database, Class I and Class II protostellar candidates are identified within the C¹⁸O clumps. The fraction of Class I candidates among all YSO candidates (Class I+Class II) is ⩾50% in CWHRs and ⩽50% in CWOHRs. We conclude that effects from the H ii regions can be seen in (1) the spatial distributions of the clumps: filamentary or shell-like structure running along the H ii regions; (2) the velocity structures of the clumps: large velocity dispersion along shells; and (3) the small age spreads of YSOs. The small spreads in age of the YSOs show that the presence of H ii regions tends to trigger coeval cluster formation.

We report the discovery of the second and third pulsating extremely low mass (ELM) white dwarfs (WDs), SDSS J111215.82+111745.0 (hereafter J1112) and SDSS J151826.68+065813.2 (hereafter J1518). Both have masses < 0.25 M_☉ and effective temperatures below 10, 000 K, establishing these putatively He-core WDs as a cooler class of pulsating hydrogen-atmosphere WDs (DAVs, or ZZ Ceti stars). The short-period pulsations evidenced in the light curve of J1112 may also represent the first observation of acoustic (p-mode) pulsations in any WD, which provide an exciting opportunity to probe this WD in a complimentary way compared to the long-period g-modes that are also present. J1112 is a T_eff =9590 ± 140 K and log g =6.36 ± 0.06 WD. The star displays sinusoidal variability at five distinct periodicities between 1792 and 2855 s. In this star, we also see short-period variability, strongest at 134.3 s, well short of the expected g-modes for such a low-mass WD. The other new pulsating WD, J1518, is a T_eff =9900 ± 140 K and log g =6.80 ± 0.05 WD. The light curve of J1518 is highly non-sinusoidal, with at least seven significant periods between 1335 and 3848 s. Consistent with the expectation that ELM WDs must be formed in binaries, these two new pulsating He-core WDs, in addition to the prototype SDSS J184037.78+642312.3, have close companions. However, the observed variability is inconsistent with tidally induced pulsations and is so far best explained by the same hydrogen partial-ionization driving mechanism at work in classic C/O-core ZZ Ceti stars.

We present the results of a set of numerical simulations of long-duration gamma-ray burst jets associated with massive, compact stellar progenitors. The simulations extend to large radii and allow us to locate the region in which the peak frequency of the advected radiation is set before the radiation is released at the photosphere. Light curves and spectra are calculated for different viewing angles as well as different progenitor structures and jet properties. We find that the radiation released at the photosphere of matter-dominated jets is able to reproduce the observed Amati and energy–Lorentz factor correlations. Our simulations also predict a correlation between the burst energy and the radiative efficiency of the prompt phase, consistent with observations.

We combine high-resolution Hubble Space Telescope/WFC3 images with multi-wavelength photometry to track the evolution of structure and activity of massive (M_⋆ > 10¹⁰ M_☉) galaxies at redshifts z = 1.4–3 in two fields of the Cosmic Assembly Near-infrared Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey. We detect compact, star-forming galaxies (cSFGs) whose number densities, masses, sizes, and star formation rates (SFRs) qualify them as likely progenitors of compact, quiescent, massive galaxies (cQGs) at z = 1.5–3. At z ≳ 2, cSFGs present SFR = 100–200 M_☉ yr⁻¹, yet their specific star formation rates (sSFR ∼ 10⁻⁹ yr⁻¹) are typically half that of other massive SFGs at the same epoch, and host X-ray luminous active galactic nuclei (AGNs) 30 times (∼30%) more frequently. These properties suggest that cSFGs are formed by gas-rich processes (mergers or disk-instabilities) that induce a compact starburst and feed an AGN, which, in turn, quench the star formation on dynamical timescales (few 10⁸ yr). The cSFGs are continuously being formed at z = 2–3 and fade to cQGs down to z ∼ 1.5. After this epoch, cSFGs are rare, thereby truncating the formation of new cQGs. Meanwhile, down to z = 1, existing cQGs continue to enlarge to match local QGs in size, while less-gas-rich mergers and other secular mechanisms shepherd (larger) SFGs as later arrivals to the red sequence. In summary, we propose two evolutionary tracks of QG formation: an early (z ≳ 2), formation path of rapidly quenched cSFGs fading into cQGs that later enlarge within the quiescent phase, and a late-arrival (z ≲ 2) path in which larger SFGs form extended QGs without passing through a compact state.

Azimuthal age/color gradients across spiral arms are a signature of long-lived spirals. From a sample of 19 normal (or weakly barred) spirals where we have previously found azimuthal age/color gradient candidates, 13 objects were further selected if a two-armed grand-design pattern survived in a surface density stellar mass map. Mass maps were obtained from optical and near-infrared imaging, by comparison with a Monte Carlo library of stellar population synthesis models that allowed us to obtain the mass-to-light ratio in the J band, (M/L)_J, as a function of (g − i) versus (i − J) color. The selected spirals were analyzed with Fourier methods in search of other signatures of long-lived modes related to the gradients, such as the gradient divergence toward corotation, and the behavior of the phase angle of the two-armed spiral in different wavebands, as expected from theory. The results show additional signatures of long-lived spirals in at least 50% of the objects.

The damped random walk (DRW) model is increasingly used to model the variability in quasar optical light curves, but it is still uncertain whether the DRW model provides an adequate description of quasar optical variability across all timescales. Using a sample of OGLE quasar light curves, we consider four modifications to the DRW model by introducing additional parameters into the covariance function to search for deviations from the DRW model on both short and long timescales. We find good agreement with the DRW model on timescales that are well sampled by the data (from a month to a few years), possibly with some intrinsic scatter in the additional parameters, but this conclusion depends on the statistical test employed and is sensitive to whether the estimates of the photometric errors are correct to within ∼10%. On very short timescales (below a few months), we see some evidence of the existence of a cutoff below which the correlation is stronger than the DRW model, echoing the recent finding of Mushotzky et al. using quasar light curves from Kepler. On very long timescales (>a few years), the light curves do not constrain models well, but are consistent with the DRW model.

We have constructed a far-ultraviolet (FUV) continuum map of the Taurus–Auriga–Perseus complex, one of the largest local associations of dark clouds, by merging the two data sets of Galaxy Evolution Explorer and FUV Imaging Spectrograph, which made observations at similar wavelengths. The FUV intensity varies significantly across the whole region, but the diffuse FUV continuum is dominated by dust scattering of stellar photons. A diffuse FUV background of ∼1000 CU is observed, part of which may be attributable to the scattered photons of foreground FUV light, located in front of the thick clouds. The fluorescent emission of molecular hydrogen constitutes ∼10% of the total FUV intensity throughout the region, generally proportional to the local continuum level. We have developed a Monte Carlo radiative transfer code and applied it to the present clouds complex to obtain the optical properties of dust grains and the geometrical structures of the clouds. The albedo and the phase function asymmetry factor were estimated to be 0.42^+0.05_−0.05, and 0.47^+0.11_−0.27, respectively, in accordance with theoretical estimations as well as recent observations. The distance and thickness of the four prominent clouds in this complex were estimated using a single-slab model applied individually to each cloud. The results obtained were in good agreement with those from other observations of the Taurus cloud, as its geometrical structure is rather simple. For other clouds that were observed to have multiple components, the results gave distances and thicknesses encompassing all of the components of each cloud. The distance and thickness estimations were not crucially sensitive to the exact values of the albedo and the phase function asymmetry factor, while the locations of the bright field stars relative to the clouds as initial photon sources seem to be the most important factor in the process of fitting.

We use a high-temperature chemical network to derive the molecular abundances in axisymmetric accretion disk models around active galactic nuclei (AGNs) within 100 pc using simple radial and vertical density and temperature distributions motivated by more detailed physical models. We explore the effects of X-ray irradiation and cosmic-ray ionization on the spatial distribution of the molecular abundances of CO, CN, CS, HCN, HCO⁺, HC₃N, C₂H, and c-C₃H₂ using a variety of plausible disk structures. These simple models have molecular regions with an X-ray-dominated region layer, a midplane without the strong influence of X-rays, and a high-temperature region in the inner portion with moderate X-ray flux where families of polyynes (C_nH₂) and cyanopolyynes can be enhanced. For the high midplane density disks we explore, we find that cosmic rays produced by supernovae do not significantly affect the regions unless the star formation efficiency significantly exceeds that of the Milky Way. We highlight molecular abundance observations and ratios that may distinguish among theoretical models of the density distribution in AGN disks. Finally, we assess the importance of the shock crossing time and the accretion time relative to the formation time for various chemical species. Vertical column densities are tabulated for a number of molecular species at both the characteristic shock crossing time and steady state. Although we do not attempt to fit any particular system or set of observations, we discuss our models and results in the context of the nearby AGN NGC 1068.

We identify 42 "candidate groups" lying between 1.8 < z < 3.0 from a sample of 3502 galaxies with spectroscopic redshifts in the zCOSMOS-deep redshift survey within this same redshift interval. These systems contain three to five spectroscopic galaxies that lie within 500 kpc in projected distance (in physical space) and within 700 km s⁻¹ in velocity. Based on extensive analysis of mock catalogs that have been generated from the Millennium simulation, we examine the likely nature of these systems at the time of observation, and what they will evolve into down to the present epoch. Although few of the "member" galaxies are likely to reside in the same halo at the epoch we observe them, 50% of the systems will have, by the present epoch, all of the member galaxies in the same halo, and almost all (93%) will have at least some of the potential members in the same halo. Most of the candidate groups can therefore be described as "proto-groups." A crude estimate of the overdensities of these structures is also consistent with the idea that these systems are being seen as they assemble. We also examine present-day halos and ask whether their progenitors would have been seen among our candidate groups. For present-day halos between 10¹⁴ and 10¹⁵ M_☉ h⁻¹, 35% should have appeared among our candidate groups, and this would have risen to 70% if our survey had been fully sampled, so we can conclude that our sample can be taken as representative of a large fraction of such systems. There is a clear excess of massive galaxies above 10¹⁰ M_☉ around the locations of the candidate groups in a large independent COSMOS photo-z sample, but we see no evidence in this latter data for any color differentiation with respect to the field. This is, however, consistent with the idea that such differentiation arises in satellite galaxies, as indicated at z < 1, if the candidate groups are indeed only starting to be assembled.

A major goal over the last decade has been understanding which multidimensional effects are crucial in facilitating core-collapse supernova (CCSN) explosions. Unfortunately, much of this work has necessarily assumed axisymmetry. In this work, we present analyses of simplified two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) CCSN models with the goal of comparing the hydrodynamics in setups that differ only in dimension. Not surprisingly, we find many differences between 2D and 3D models. While some differences are subtle and perhaps not crucial, others are dramatic and make interpreting 2D models problematic. In particular, axisymmetric models produce excess power at the largest spatial scales, power that has been deemed critical in previous explosion models. Nevertheless, our 3D models, which have an order of magnitude less power than 2D models on large scales, explode earlier. Since explosions occur earlier in 3D than in 2D, the vigorous large-scale sloshing is either not critical in any dimension or the explosion mechanism operates differently in 2D and 3D. On the other hand, we find that the average parcel of matter in the gain region has been exposed to net heating for up to 30% longer in 3D than in 2D, an effect we attribute to the differing characters of turbulence in 2D and 3D. We suggest that this effect plays a prominent role in producing earlier explosions in 3D. Finally, we discuss a simple model for the runaway growth of buoyant bubbles that is able to quantitatively account for the growth of the shock radius and predicts a critical luminosity relation.

The hypothesis of an exogenous origin and delivery of biologically important molecules to early Earth presents an alternative route to their terrestrial in situ formation. Dipeptides like Gly–Gly detected in the Murchison meteorite are considered as key molecules in prebiotic chemistry because biofunctional dipeptides present the vital link in the evolutionary transition from prebiotic amino acids to early proteins. However, the processes that could lead to the exogenous abiotic synthesis of dipeptides are unknown. Here, we report the identification of two proteinogenic dipeptides—Gly–Gly and Leu–Ala—formed via electron-irradiation of interstellar model ices followed by annealing the irradiated samples to 300 K. Our results indicate that the radiation-induced, non-enzymatic formation of proteinogenic dipeptides in interstellar ice analogs is facile. Once synthesized and incorporated into the ''building material'' of solar systems, biomolecules at least as complex as dipeptides could have been delivered to habitable planets such as early Earth by meteorites and comets, thus seeding the beginning of life as we know it.

Observations of CO, HCO⁺, and H₂CO have been carried out at nine positions across the Helix Nebula (NGC 7293) using the Submillimeter Telescope and the 12 m antenna of the Arizona Radio Observatory. Measurements of the J = 1 → 0, 2 → 1, and 3 →2 transitions of CO, two transitions of HCO⁺ (J = 1 → 0 and 3 →2), and five lines of H₂CO (J_{Ka, Kc} = 1_{0, 1} → 0_{0, 0}, 2_{1, 2} → 1_{1, 1}, 2_{0, 2} → 1_{0, 1}, 2_{1, 1} → 1_{1, 0}, and 3_{0, 3} →2_{0, 2}) were conducted in the 0.8, 1, 2, and 3 mm bands toward this highly evolved planetary nebula. HCO⁺ and H₂CO were detected at all positions, along with three transitions of CO. From a radiative transfer analysis, the kinetic temperature was found to be T_K ∼ 15–40 K across the Helix with a gas density of n(H₂) ∼ 0.1–5 × 10⁵ cm⁻³. The warmer gas appears to be closer to the central star, but high density material is distributed throughout the nebula. For CO, the column density was found to be N_tot ∼ 0.25–4.5 × 10¹⁵ cm⁻², with a fractional abundance of f (CO/H₂) ∼ 0.3–6 × 10⁻⁴. Column densities for HCO⁺ and H₂CO were determined to be N_tot ∼ 0.2–5.5 × 10¹¹ cm⁻² and 0.2–1.6 × 10¹² cm⁻², respectively, with fractional abundances of f (HCO⁺/H₂) ∼ 0.3–7.3 × 10⁻⁸ and f (H₂CO/H₂) ∼ 0.3–2.1 × 10⁻⁷—several orders of magnitude higher than predicted by chemical models. Polyatomic molecules in the Helix appear to be well-protected from photodissociation and may actually seed the diffuse interstellar medium.

We revisit the Blandford–Znajek process and solve the fundamental equation that governs the structure of the steady-state force-free magnetosphere around a Kerr black hole. The solution depends on the distributions of the magnetic field angular velocity ω and the poloidal electric current I. These are not arbitrary. They are determined self-consistently by requiring that magnetic field lines cross smoothly the two singular surfaces of the problem: the inner "light surface" located inside the ergosphere and the outer "light surface" which is the generalization of the pulsar light cylinder. We find the solution for the simplest possible magnetic field configuration, the split monopole, through a numerical iterative relaxation method analogous to the one that yields the structure of the steady-state axisymmetric force-free pulsar magnetosphere. We obtain the rate of electromagnetic extraction of energy and confirm the results of Blandford and Znajek and of previous time-dependent simulations. Furthermore, we discuss the physical applicability of magnetic field configurations that do not cross both "light surfaces."

The edges of magnetically dead zones in protostellar disks have been proposed as locations where density bumps may arise, trapping planetesimals and helping form planets. Magneto-rotational turbulence in magnetically active zones provides both accretion of gas on the star and transport of mass to the dead zone. We investigate the location of the magnetically active regions in a protostellar disk around a solar-type star, varying the disk temperature, surface density profile, and dust-to-gas ratio. We also consider stellar masses between 0.4 and 2 M_☉, with corresponding adjustments in the disk mass and temperature. The dead zone's size and shape are found using the Elsasser number criterion with conductivities including the contributions from ions, electrons, and charged fractal dust aggregates. The charged species' abundances are found using the approach proposed by Okuzumi. The dead zone is in most cases defined by the ambipolar diffusion. In our maps, the dead zone takes a variety of shapes, including a fish tail pointing away from the star and islands located on and off the midplane. The corresponding accretion rates vary with radius, indicating locations where the surface density will increase over time, and others where it will decrease. We show that density bumps do not readily grow near the dead zone's outer edge, independently of the disk parameters and the dust properties. Instead, the accretion rate peaks at the radius where the gas-phase metals freeze out. This could lead to clearing a valley in the surface density, and to a trap for pebbles located just outside the metal freezeout line.

Recent studies have shown that baroclinic vortex amplification is strongly dependent on certain factors, namely, the global entropy gradient, the efficiency of thermal diffusion and/or relaxation as well as numerical resolution. We conduct a comprehensive study of a broad range and combination of various entropy gradients, thermal diffusion and thermal relaxation timescales via local shearing sheet simulations covering the parameter space relevant for protoplanetary disks. We measure the Reynolds stresses as a function of our control parameters and see that there is angular momentum transport even for entropy gradients as low as β = −dln s/dln r = 1/2. Values we expect in protoplanetary disks are between β = 0.5–2.0 The amplification-rate of the perturbations, Γ, appears to be proportional to β² and thus proportional to the square of the Brunt-Väisälä frequency (Γ∝β²∝N²). The saturation level of Reynolds stresses, on the other hand, seems to be proportional to β^1/2. This highlights the importance of baroclinic effects even for the low entropy gradients expected in protoplanetary disks.

We examine the effects of time dilation on the temporal profiles of gamma-ray burst (GRB) pulses. By using prescriptions for the shape and evolution of prompt gamma-ray spectra, we can generate a simulated population of single-pulsed GRBs at a variety of redshifts and observe how their light curves would appear to a gamma-ray detector here on Earth. We find that the observer frame duration of individual pulses does not increase with redshift as 1 + z, which one would expect from cosmological expansion. This time dilation is masked by an opposite and often stronger effect: with increasing redshift and decreasing signal-to-noise ratio only the brightest portion of the light curve can be detected. The results of our simulation are consistent with the fact that the simple time dilation of GRB light curves has not materialized in either the Swift or Fermi detected GRBs with known redshift. We show that the measured durations and associated E_iso estimates for GRBs detected near the instrument's detection threshold should be considered lower limits to the true values. Furthermore, we conclude that attempts at distinguishing between long and short GRBs, at even moderate redshifts, cannot be done based on a burst's temporal properties alone.

We present the results of a search for extended X-ray sources and their corresponding galaxy groups from 800 ks Chandra coverage of the All-wavelength Extended Groth Strip International Survey (AEGIS). This yields one of the largest X-ray-selected galaxy group catalogs from a blind survey to date. The red-sequence technique and spectroscopic redshifts allow us to identify 100% of reliable sources, leading to a catalog of 52 galaxy groups. These groups span the redshift range z ∼ 0.066–1.544 and virial mass range M₂₀₀ ∼ 1.34 × 10¹³–1.33 × 10¹⁴ M_☉. For the 49 extended sources that lie within DEEP2 and DEEP3 Galaxy Redshift Survey coverage, we identify spectroscopic counterparts and determine velocity dispersions. We select member galaxies by applying different cuts along the line of sight or in projected spatial coordinates. A constant cut along the line of sight can cause a large scatter in scaling relations in low-mass or high-mass systems depending on the size of the cut. A velocity-dispersion-based virial radius can cause a larger overestimation of velocity dispersion in comparison to an X-ray-based virial radius for low-mass systems. There is no significant difference between these two radial cuts for more massive systems. Independent of radial cut, an overestimation of velocity dispersion can be created in the case of the existence of significant substructure and compactness in X-ray emission, which mostly occur in low-mass systems. We also present a comparison between X-ray galaxy groups and optical galaxy groups detected using the Voronoi–Delaunay method for DEEP2 data in this field.

The usefulness of H i Lyα photons for characterizing star formation in the distant universe is limited by our understanding of the astrophysical processes that regulate their escape from galaxies. These processes can only be observed in detail out to a few × 100 Mpc. Past nearby (z < 0.3) spectroscopic studies are based on small samples and/or kinematically unresolved data. Taking advantage of the high sensitivity of Hubble Space Telescope's Cosmic Origins Spectrograph (COS), we observed the Lyα lines of 20 Hα-selected galaxies located at <z > =0.03. The galaxies cover a broad range of luminosity, oxygen abundance, and reddening. In this paper, we characterize the observed Lyα lines and establish correlations with fundamental galaxy properties. We find seven emitters. These host young (⩽10 Myr) stellar populations have rest-frame equivalent widths in the range 1–12 Å, and have Lyα escape fractions within the COS aperture in the range 1%–12%. One emitter has a double-peaked Lyα with peaks 370 km s⁻¹ apart and a stronger blue peak. Excluding this object, the emitters have Lyα and O i λ1302 offsets from Hα in agreement with expanding-shell models and Lyman break galaxies observations. The absorbers have offsets that are almost consistent with a static medium. We find no one-to-one correspondence between Lyα emission and age, metallicity, or reddening. Thus, we confirm that Lyα is enhanced by outflows and is regulated by the dust and H i column density surrounding the hot stars.

The reionization epoch of singly ionized helium (He ii) is believed to start at redshifts z ∼ 3.5–4 and be nearly complete by z ≃ 2.7. We explore the post-reionization epoch with far-ultraviolet spectra of the bright, high-redshift quasar HS1700+6416 taken by the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph (COS) on the Hubble Space Telescope, which show strong He ii (λ303.78) absorption shortward of the QSO redshift, z_QSO = 2.75. We discuss these data as they probe the post-reionization history of He ii and the local ionization environment around the quasar and transverse to the line of sight, finding that quasars are likely responsible for much of the ionization. We compare previous spectra taken by the Far-Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer to the current COS data, which have a substantially higher signal-to-noise ratio. The Gunn–Peterson trough recovers at lower redshifts, with the effective optical depth falling from τ_eff ≃ 1.8 at z ∼ 2.7 to τ_eff ≃ 0.7 at z ∼ 2.3, higher than has been reported in earlier work. We see an interesting excess of flux near the He ii Lyα break, which could be quasar line emission, although likely not He ii Lyα. We present spectra of four possible transverse-proximity quasars, although the UV hardness data are not of sufficient quality to say if their effects are seen along the HS1700 sightline.

We present detailed analysis of color–magnitude diagrams of NGC 2403, obtained from a deep (m ≲ 28) Hubble Space Telescope (HST) Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 observation of the outer disk of NGC 2403, supplemented by several shallow (m ≲ 26) HST Advanced Camera for Surveys fields. We derive the spatially resolved star formation history of NGC 2403 out to 11 disk scale lengths. In the inner portions of the galaxy, we compare the recent star formation rates (SFRs) we derive from the resolved stars with those measured using GALEX FUV + Spitzer 24μ fluxes, finding excellent agreement between the methods. Our measurements also show that the radial gradient in recent SFR mirrors the disk exponential profile to 11 scale lengths with no break, extending to SFR densities a factor of ∼100 lower than those that can be measured with GALEX and Spitzer (∼2 × 10⁻⁶M_☉ yr⁻¹ kpc⁻²). Furthermore, we find that the cumulative stellar mass of the disk was formed at similar times at all radii. We compare these characteristics of NGC 2403 to those of its "morphological twins," NGC 300 and M 33, showing that the structure and age distributions of the NGC 2403 disk are more similar to those of the relatively isolated system NGC 300 than to those of the Local Group analog M 33. We also discuss the environments and Hi morphologies of these three nearby galaxies, comparing them to integrated light studies of larger samples of more distant galaxy disks. Taken together, the physical properties and evolutionary history of NGC 2403 suggest that the galaxy has had no close encounters with other M 81 group members and may be falling into the group for the first time.

We present the optical discovery and subarcsecond optical and X-ray localization of the afterglow of the short GRB 120804A, as well as optical, near-IR, and radio detections of its host galaxy. X-ray observations with Swift/XRT, Chandra, and XMM-Newton extending to δt ≈ 19 days reveal a single power-law decline. The optical afterglow is faint, and comparison to the X-ray flux indicates that GRB 120804A is "dark," with a rest-frame extinction of A^host_V ≈ 2.5 mag (at z = 1.3). The intrinsic neutral hydrogen column density inferred from the X-ray spectrum, N_{H, int}(z = 1.3) ≈ 2 × 10²² cm⁻², is commensurate with the large extinction. The host galaxy exhibits red optical/near-IR colors. Equally important, JVLA observations at ≈0.9–11 days reveal a constant flux density of F_ν(5.8 GHz) = 35  ±  4 μJy and an optically thin spectrum, unprecedented for GRB afterglows, but suggestive instead of emission from the host galaxy. The optical/near-IR and radio fluxes are well fit with the scaled spectral energy distribution of the local ultraluminous infrared galaxy (ULIRG) Arp 220 at z ≈ 1.3, with a resulting star formation rate of x  ≈  300 M_☉ yr⁻¹. The inferred extinction and small projected offset (2.2 ± 1.2 kpc) are also consistent with the ULIRG scenario, as is the presence of a companion galaxy at the same redshift and with a separation of about 11 kpc. The limits on radio afterglow emission, in conjunction with the observed X-ray and optical emission, require a circumburst density of n ∼ 10⁻³ cm⁻³, an isotropic-equivalent energy scale of E_{γ, iso} ≈ E_{K, iso} ≈ 7 × 10⁵¹ erg, and a jet opening angle of θ_j ≳ 11°. The expected fraction of luminous infrared galaxies in the short GRB host sample is ∼0.01 and ∼0.25 (for pure stellar mass and star formation weighting, respectively). Thus, the observed fraction of two events in about 25 hosts (GRBs 120804A and 100206A) appears to support our previous conclusion that short GRBs track both stellar mass and star formation activity.

We investigate the electron energy distributions (EEDs) and the acceleration processes in the jet of Mrk 421 through fitting the spectral energy distributions (SEDs) in different active states in the frame of a one-zone synchrotron self-Compton model. After assuming two possible EEDs formed in different acceleration models: the shock-accelerated power law with exponential cut-off (PLC) EED and the stochastic-turbulence-accelerated log–parabolic (LP) EED, we fit the observed SEDs of Mrk 421 in both low and giant flare states using the Markov Chain Monte Carlo method which constrains the model parameters in a more efficient way. The results from our calculations indicate that (1) the PLC and LP models give comparably good fits for the SED in the low state, but the variations of model parameters from low state to flaring can be reasonably explained only in the case of the PLC in the low state; and (2) the LP model gives better fits compared to the PLC model for the SED in the flare state, and the intra-day/night variability observed at GeV–TeV bands can be accommodated only in the LP model. The giant flare may be attributed to the stochastic turbulence re-acceleration of the shock-accelerated electrons in the low state. Therefore, we may conclude that shock acceleration is dominant in the low state, while stochastic turbulence acceleration is dominant in the flare state. Moreover, our result shows that the extrapolated TeV spectra from the best-fit SEDs from optical through GeV with the two EEDs are different. It should be considered with caution when such extrapolated TeV spectra are used to constrain extragalactic background light models.

We develop a new semi-dynamical method to study shock revival by neutrino heating in core-collapse supernovae. Our new approach is an extension of the previous studies that employ spherically symmetric, steady, shocked accretion flows together with the light-bulb approximation. The latter has been widely used in the supernova community for the phenomenological investigation of the criteria for successful supernova explosions. In the present approach, we get rid of the steady-state condition and take into account shock wave motions instead. We have in mind a scenario in which it is not the critical luminosity but the critical fluctuation generated by hydrodynamical instabilities such as standing accretion shock instability and neutrino-driven convection in the post-shock region that determines the onset of shock revival. After confirming that the new approach indeed captures the dynamics of revived shock wave qualitatively, we then apply the method to various initial conditions and find that there is a critical fluctuation for shock revival, which can be well fit by the following formula: f_crit ∼ 0.8 × (M_in/1.4 M_☉) × {1 − (r_sh/10⁸ cm)}, where f_crit denotes the critical pressure fluctuation normalized by the unperturbed post-shock value. M_in and r_sh stand for the mass of the central compact object and the shock radius, respectively. The critical fluctuation decreases with the shock radius, whereas it increases with the mass of the central object. We discuss the possible implications of our results for three-dimensional effects on shock revival, which is currently controversial in the supernova community.

We study the phase-averaged spectra and luminosities of γ-ray emissions from young, isolated pulsars within a revised outer gap model. In the revised version of the outer gap, there are two possible cases for the outer gaps: the fractional size of the outer gap is estimated through the photon–photon pair process in the first case (Case I), and is limited by the critical field lines in the second case (Case II). The fractional size is described by Case I if the fractional size at the null charge surface in Case I is smaller than that in Case II, and vice versa. Such an outer gap can extend from the inner boundary, whose radial distance to the neutron star is less than that of the null charge surface to the light cylinder for a γ-ray pulsar with a given magnetic inclination. When the shape of the outer gap is determined, assuming that high-energy emission at an averaged radius of the field line in the center of the outer gap, with a Gaussian distribution of the parallel electric field along the gap height, represents typical emission, the phase-averaged γ-ray spectrum for a given pulsar can be estimated in the revised model with three model parameters. We apply the model to explain the phase-averaged spectra of the Vela (Case I) and Geminga (Case II) pulsars. We also use the model to fit the phase-averaged spectra of 54 young, isolated γ-ray pulsars, and then calculate the γ-ray luminosities and compare them with the observed data from Fermi-LAT.

A hyperaccreting stellar-mass black hole has been long speculated as the best candidate for the central engine of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). Recent rich observations of GRBs by space missions such as Swift and Fermi pose new constraints on GRB central engine models. In this paper, we study the baryon-loading processes of a GRB jet launched from a black hole central engine. We consider a relativistic jet powered by $\nu \bar{\nu }$-annihilation or by the Blandford–Znajek (BZ) mechanism. We consider baryon loading from a neutrino-driven wind launched from a neutrino-cooling-dominated accretion flow. For a magnetically dominated BZ jet, we consider neutron drifting from the magnetic wall surrounding the jet and subsequent positron capture and proton–neutron inelastic collisions. The minimum baryon loads in both types of jet are calculated. We find that in both cases a more luminous jet tends to be more baryon poor. A neutrino-driven "fireball" is typically "dirtier" than a magnetically dominated jet, while a magnetically dominated jet can be much cleaner. Both models have the right scaling to interpret the empirical Γ–L_iso relation discovered recently. Since some neutrino-driven jets have too much baryon loading as compared with the data, we suggest that at least a good fraction of GRBs should have a magnetically dominated central engine.

By combining rotation periods with spectroscopic determinations of projected rotation velocity, Jackson et al. have found that the mean radii for low-mass M-dwarfs in the young, open cluster NGC 2516 are larger than model predictions at a given absolute I magnitude or I − K color and also larger than measured radii of magnetically inactive M-dwarfs. The relative radius difference is correlated with magnitude, increasing from a few percent at M_I = 7 to greater than 50% for the lowest luminosity stars in their sample at M_I ∼ 9.5. Jackson et al. have suggested that a two-temperature star spot model is capable of explaining the observations, but their model requires spot coverage fractions of at least 50% in rapidly rotating M-dwarfs. Here we examine these results in terms of stellar models that include the inhibiting effects of magnetic fields on convective energy transport, with and without the effects of star spots. We find that a pure spot model is inconsistent with the color–magnitude diagram. The observations of radii versus color and radii versus absolute magnitude in NGC 2516 are consistent with models which include only magnetic inhibition or a combination of magnetic inhibition and spots. At a given mass we find a large dispersion in the strength of the vertical component of the magnetic field in the stellar photosphere but the general trend is that the vertical field increases with decreasing mass from a few hundred Gauss at 0.65 M_☉ to 600–900 G, depending on spot coverage, in the lowest mass stars in the sample at 0.25 M_☉.

We observed the transiting super-Earth exoplanet GJ1214b using warm Spitzer at 4.5 μm wavelength during a 20 day quasi-continuous sequence in 2011 May. The goals of our long observation were to accurately define the infrared transit radius of this nearby super-Earth, to search for the secondary eclipse, and to search for other transiting planets in the habitable zone of GJ1214. We here report results from the transit monitoring of GJ1214b, including a reanalysis of previous transit observations by Désert et al. In total, we analyze 14 transits of GJ1214b at 4.5 μm, 3 transits at 3.6 μm, and 7 new ground-based transits in the I+z band. Our new Spitzer data by themselves eliminate cloudless solar composition atmospheres for GJ1214b, and methane-rich models from Howe & Burrows. Using our new Spitzer measurements to anchor the observed transit radii of GJ1214b at long wavelengths, and adding new measurements in I+z, we evaluate models from Benneke & Seager and Howe & Burrows using a χ² analysis. We find that the best-fit model exhibits an increase in transit radius at short wavelengths due to Rayleigh scattering. Pure water atmospheres are also possible. However, a flat line (no atmosphere detected) remains among the best of the statistically acceptable models, and better than pure water atmospheres. We explore the effect of systematic differences among results from different observational groups, and we find that the Howe & Burrows tholin-haze model remains the best fit, even when systematic differences among observers are considered.

The initial mass function for stars is usually fitted by three straight lines, which means it has seven parameters. The presence of brown dwarfs (BDs) increases the number of straight lines to four and the number of parameters to nine. Another common fitting function is the lognormal distribution, which is characterized by two parameters. This paper is devoted to demonstrating the advantage of introducing a left truncated beta probability density function, which is characterized by four parameters. The constant of normalization, the mean, the mode, and the distribution function are calculated for the left truncated beta distribution. The normal beta distribution that results from convolving independent normally distributed and beta distributed components is also derived. The chi-square test and the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test are performed on a first sample of stars and BDs that belongs to the massive young cluster NGC 6611, and on a second sample that represents the masses of the stars of the cluster NGC 2362.

We have tested some relations for star formation rates used in extragalactic studies for regions within the Galaxy. In nearby molecular clouds, where the initial mass function is not fully sampled, the dust emission at 24 μm greatly underestimates star formation rates (by a factor of 100 on average) when compared to star formation rates determined from counting young stellar objects. The total infrared emission does no better. In contrast, the total far-infrared method agrees within a factor of two on average with star formation rates based on radio continuum emission for massive, dense clumps that are forming enough massive stars to have L_TIR exceed 10^4.5L_☉. The total infrared and 24 μm also agree well with each other for both nearby, low-mass star-forming regions and the massive, dense clump regions.

Infrared vibration-rotation lines can be valuable probes of interstellar and circumstellar molecules, especially symmetric molecules, which have no pure rotational transitions. But most such observations have been interpreted with an isothermal absorbing slab model, which leaves out important radiative transfer and molecular excitation effects. A more realistic non-LTE and non-isothermal radiative transfer model has been constructed. The results of this model are in much better agreement with the observations, including cases where lines in one branch of a vibration-rotation band are in absorption and another in emission. In general, conclusions based on the isothermal absorbing slab model can be very misleading, but the assumption of LTE may not lead to such large errors, particularly if the radiation field temperature is close to the gas temperature.

Identifying terrestrial planets in the habitable zones (HZs) of other stars is one of the primary goals of ongoing radial velocity (RV) and transit exoplanet surveys and proposed future space missions. Most current estimates of the boundaries of the HZ are based on one-dimensional (1D), cloud-free, climate model calculations by Kasting et al. However, this model used band models that were based on older HITRAN and HITEMP line-by-line databases. The inner edge of the HZ in the Kasting et al. model was determined by loss of water, and the outer edge was determined by the maximum greenhouse provided by a CO₂ atmosphere. A conservative estimate for the width of the HZ from this model in our solar system is 0.95–1.67 AU. Here an updated 1D radiative–convective, cloud-free climate model is used to obtain new estimates for HZ widths around F, G, K, and M stars. New H₂O and CO₂ absorption coefficients, derived from the HITRAN 2008 and HITEMP 2010 line-by-line databases, are important improvements to the climate model. According to the new model, the water-loss (inner HZ) and maximum greenhouse (outer HZ) limits for our solar system are at 0.99 and 1.70 AU, respectively, suggesting that the present Earth lies near the inner edge. Additional calculations are performed for stars with effective temperatures between 2600 and 7200 K, and the results are presented in parametric form, making them easy to apply to actual stars. The new model indicates that, near the inner edge of the HZ, there is no clear distinction between runaway greenhouse and water-loss limits for stars with T_eff ≲ 5000 K, which has implications for ongoing planet searches around K and M stars. To assess the potential habitability of extrasolar terrestrial planets, we propose using stellar flux incident on a planet rather than equilibrium temperature. This removes the dependence on planetary (Bond) albedo, which varies depending on the host star's spectral type. We suggest that conservative estimates of the HZ (water-loss and maximum greenhouse limits) should be used for current RV surveys and Kepler mission to obtain a lower limit on η_⊕, so that future flagship missions like TPF-C and Darwin are not undersized. Our model does not include the radiative effects of clouds; thus, the actual HZ boundaries may extend further in both directions than the estimates just given.

We present a new algorithm for detecting transiting extrasolar planets in time-series photometry. The Quasiperiodic Automated Transit Search (QATS) algorithm relaxes the usual assumption of strictly periodic transits by permitting a variable, but bounded, interval between successive transits. We show that this method is capable of detecting transiting planets with significant transit timing variations without any loss of significance—"smearing"—as would be incurred with traditional algorithms; however, this is at the cost of a slightly increased stochastic background. The approximate times of transit are standard products of the QATS search. Despite the increased flexibility, we show that QATS has a run-time complexity that is comparable to traditional search codes and is comparably easy to implement. QATS is applicable to data having a nearly uninterrupted, uniform cadence and is therefore well suited to the modern class of space-based transit searches (e.g., Kepler, CoRoT). Applications of QATS include transiting planets in dynamically active multi-planet systems and transiting planets in stellar binary systems.

Stars may be assembled in large growth spurts; however the evidence for this hypothesis is circumstantial. Directly studying the accretion at the earliest phases of stellar growth is challenging because young stars are deeply embedded in optically thick envelopes, which have spectral energy distributions that peak in the far-IR, where observations are difficult. In this paper, we consider the feasibility of detecting accretion outbursts from these younger stars by investigating the timescales for how the protostellar envelope responds to changes in the emission properties of the central source. The envelope heats up in response to an outburst, brightening at all wavelengths and with the emission peak moving to shorter wavelengths. The timescale for this change depends on the time for dust grains to heat and re-emit photons and the time required for the energy to escape the inner, optically thick portion of the envelope. We find that the dust response time is much shorter than the photon propagation time and thus the timescale over which the emission varies is set by time delays imposed by geometry. These times are hours to days near the peak of the spectral energy distribution and weeks to months in the sub-mm. The ideal location to quickly detect continuum variability is therefore in the mid- to far-IR, near the peak of the spectral energy distribution, where the change in emission amplitude is largest. Searching for variability in sub-mm continuum emission is also feasible, though with a longer time separation and a weaker relationship between the amount of detected emission amplitude and change in central source luminosity. Such observations would constrain accretion histories of protostars and would help to trace the disk/envelope instabilities that lead to stellar growth.

An arbitrary surface mass density of the gravitational lens can be decomposed into multipole components. We simulate the ray tracing for the multipolar mass distribution of the generalized Singular Isothermal Sphere model based on deflection angles, which are analytically calculated. The magnification patterns in the source plane are then derived from an inverse shooting technique. As has been found, the caustics of odd mode lenses are composed of two overlapping layers for some lens models. When a point source traverses this kind of overlapping caustics, the image numbers change by ±4, rather than ±2. There are two kinds of caustic images. One is the critical curve and the other is the transition locus. It is found that the image number of the fold is exactly the average value of image numbers on two sides of the fold, while the image number of the cusp is equal to the smaller one. We also focus on the magnification patterns of the quadrupole (m = 2) lenses under the perturbations of m = 3, 4, and 5 mode components and found that one, two, and three butterfly or swallowtail singularities can be produced, respectively. With the increasing intensity of the high-order perturbations, the singularities grow up to bring sixfold image regions. If these perturbations are large enough to let two or three of the butterflies or swallowtails make contact, then eightfold or tenfold image regions can be produced as well. The possible astronomical applications are discussed.

Using a maximum-likelihood criterion, we derive optimal correlation strategies for signals with and without digitization. We assume that the signals are drawn from zero-mean Gaussian distributions, as is expected in radio-astronomical applications, and we present correlation estimators both with and without a priori knowledge of the signal variances. We demonstrate that traditional estimators of correlation, which rely on averaging products, exhibit large and paradoxical noise when the correlation is strong. However, we also show that these estimators are fully optimal in the limit of vanishing correlation. We calculate the bias and noise in each of these estimators and discuss their suitability for implementation in modern digital correlators.

H i line widths are typically interpreted as a measure of interstellar medium turbulence, which is potentially driven by star formation (SF). In an effort to better understand the possible connections between line widths and SF, we have characterized H i kinematics in a sample of nearby dwarf galaxies by co-adding line-of-sight spectra after removing the rotational velocity to produce average global H i line profiles. These "superprofiles" are composed of a central narrow peak (∼6–10 km s⁻¹) with higher-velocity wings to either side that contain ∼10%–15% of the total flux. The superprofiles are all very similar, indicating a universal global H i profile for dwarf galaxies. We compare characteristics of the superprofiles to various galaxy properties, such as mass and measures of SF, with the assumption that the superprofile represents a turbulent peak with energetic wings to either side. We use these quantities to derive average scale heights for the sample galaxies. When comparing to physical properties, we find that the velocity dispersion of the central peak is correlated with 〈Σ_H i〉. The fraction of mass and characteristic velocity of the high-velocity wings are correlated with measures of SF, consistent with the picture that SF drives surrounding H i to higher velocities. While gravitational instabilities provide too little energy, the SF in the sample galaxies does provide enough energy through supernovae, with realistic estimates of the coupling efficiency, to produce the observed superprofiles.

We present the first science results from our Hubble Space Telescope survey for Lyman limit absorption systems (LLS) using the low dispersion spectroscopic modes of the Advanced Camera for Surveys and the Wide Field Camera 3. Through an analysis of 71 quasars, we determine the incidence frequency of LLS per unit redshift and per unit path length, ℓ(z) and ℓ(X), respectively, over the redshift range 1 < z < 2.6, and find a weighted mean of ℓ(X) =0.29 ± 0.05 for 2.0 < z < 2.5 through a joint analysis of our sample and that of Ribaudo et al. Through stacked spectrum analysis, we determine a median (mean) value of the mean free path to ionizing radiation at z = 2.4 of λ⁹¹²_mfp = 243(252) h⁻¹₇₂ Mpc, with an error on the mean value of ±43 h⁻¹₇₂ Mpc. We also re-evaluate the estimates of λ⁹¹²_mfp from Prochaska et al. and place constraints on the evolution of λ⁹¹²_mfp with redshift, including an estimate of the "breakthrough" redshift of z = 1.6. Consistent with results at higher z, we find that a significant fraction of the opacity for absorption of ionizing photons comes from systems with N_H i ⩽10^17.5 cm⁻² with a value for the total Lyman opacity of τ^Lyman_eff = 0.40 ± 0.15. Finally, we determine that at minimum, a 5-parameter (4 power law) model is needed to describe the column density distribution function f(N_H i, X) at z ∼ 2.4, find that f(N_H i, X) undergoes no significant change in shape between z ∼ 2.4 and z ∼ 3.7, and provide our best fit model for f(N_H i, X).

Two important avenues into understanding the formation and evolution of galaxies are the Kennicutt–Schmidt (K-S) and Elmegreen–Silk (E-S) laws. These relations connect the surface densities of gas and star formation (Σ_gas and $\dot{\Sigma }_{\ast }$, respectively) in a galaxy. To elucidate the K-S and E-S laws for disks where Σ_gas ≳ 10⁴M_☉ pc⁻², we compute 132 Eddington-limited star-forming disk models with radii spanning tens to hundreds of parsecs. The theoretically expected slopes (≈1 for the K-S law and ≈0.5 for the E-S relation) are relatively robust to spatial averaging over the disks. However, the star formation laws exhibit a strong dependence on opacity that separates the models by the dust-to-gas ratio that may lead to the appearance of a erroneously large slope. The total infrared luminosity (L_TIR) and multiple carbon monoxide (CO) line intensities were computed for each model. While L_TIR can yield an estimate of the average $\dot{\Sigma }_{\ast }$ that is correct to within a factor of two, the velocity-integrated CO line intensity is a poor proxy for the average Σ_gas for these warm and dense disks, making the CO conversion factor (α_CO) all but useless. Thus, observationally derived K-S and E-S laws at these values of Σ_gas that uses any transition of CO will provide a poor measurement of the underlying star formation relation. Studies of the star formation laws of Eddington-limited disks will require a high-J transition of a high density molecular tracer, as well as a sample of galaxies with known metallicity estimates.

We report the discovery of a pair of quasars at z = 1.487, with a separation of 8585 ± 0002. Subaru Telescope infrared imaging reveals the presence of an elliptical and a disk-like galaxy located almost symmetrically between the quasars, in a cross-like configuration. Based on absorption lines in the quasar spectra and the colors of the galaxies, we estimate that both galaxies are located at redshift z = 0.899. This, as well as the similarity of the quasar spectra, suggests that the system is a single quasar multiply imaged by a galaxy group or cluster acting as a gravitational lens, although the possibility of a binary quasar cannot be fully excluded. We show that the gravitational lensing hypothesis implies that these galaxies are not isolated, but must be embedded in a dark matter halo of virial mass ∼4 × 10¹⁴ h⁻¹₇₀ M_☉ assuming a Navarro–Frenk–White model with a concentration parameter of c_vir = 6, or a singular isothermal sphere profile with a velocity dispersion of ∼670 km s⁻¹. We place constraints on the location of the dark matter halo, as well as the velocity dispersions of the galaxies. In addition, we discuss the influence of differential reddening, microlensing, and intrinsic variability on the quasar spectra and broadband photometry.

The relation between galaxy stellar mass and gas-phase metallicity is a sensitive diagnostic of the main processes that drive galaxy evolution, namely cosmological gas inflow, metal production in stars, and gas outflow via galactic winds. We employed the direct method to measure the metallicities of ∼200,000 star-forming galaxies from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey that were stacked in bins of (1) stellar mass and (2) both stellar mass and star formation rate (SFR) to significantly enhance the signal-to-noise ratio of the weak [O iii] λ4363 and [O ii] λλ7320, 7330 auroral lines required to apply the direct method. These metallicity measurements span three decades in stellar mass from log(M_⋆/M_☉) = 7.4–10.5, which allows the direct method mass–metallicity relation to simultaneously capture the high-mass turnover and extend a full decade lower in mass than previous studies that employed more uncertain strong line methods. The direct method mass–metallicity relation rises steeply at low mass (O/H ∝ M_⋆^1/2) until it turns over at log(M_⋆/M_☉) = 8.9 and asymptotes to 12 + log(O/H) = 8.8 at high mass. The direct method mass–metallicity relation has a steeper slope, a lower turnover mass, and a factor of two to three greater dependence on SFR than strong line mass–metallicity relations. Furthermore, the SFR-dependence appears monotonic with stellar mass, unlike strong line mass–metallicity relations. We also measure the N/O abundance ratio, an important tracer of star formation history, and find the clear signature of primary and secondary nitrogen enrichment. N/O correlates tightly with oxygen abundance, and even more so with stellar mass.

We report on a recent ∼150 ks long Chandra observation of the ultraluminous infrared galaxy merger NGC 6240, which allows a detailed investigation of the diffuse galactic halo. Extended soft X-ray emission is detected at the 3σ confidence level over a diamond-shaped region with projected physical size of ∼110 × 80 kpc, and a single-component thermal model provides a reasonably good fit to the observed X-ray spectrum. The hot gas has a temperature of ∼7.5 million K, an estimated density of 2.5 × 10⁻³ cm⁻³, and a total mass of ∼10¹⁰ M_☉, resulting in an intrinsic 0.4–2.5 keV luminosity of 4 × 10⁴¹ erg s⁻¹. The average temperature of 0.65 keV is quite high to be obviously related to either the binding energy in the dark-matter gravitational potential of the system or the energy dissipation and shocks following the galactic collision, yet the spatially resolved spectral analysis reveals limited variations across the halo. The relative abundance of the main α-elements with respect to iron is several times the solar value, and nearly constant as well, implying a uniform enrichment by type II supernovae out to the largest scales. Taken as a whole, the observational evidence is not compatible with a superwind originated by a recent, nuclear starburst, but rather hints at widespread, enhanced star formation proceeding at a steady rate over the entire dynamical timescale (∼200 Myr). The preferred scenario is that of a starburst-processed gas component gently expanding into, and mixing with, a pre-existing halo medium of lower metallicity (Z ∼ 0.1 solar) and temperature (kT ∼ 0.25 keV). This picture cannot be probed more extensively with the present data, and the ultimate fate of the diffuse, hot gas remains uncertain. Under some favorable conditions, at least a fraction of it might be retained after the merger completion, and evolve into the hot halo of a young elliptical galaxy.

We describe a new tool for studying the structure and physical characteristics of ultracompact active galactic nucleus (AGN) jets and their surroundings with μas precision. This tool is based on the frequency dependence of the light curves observed for intra-day variable radio sources, where the variability is caused by interstellar scintillation. We apply this method to PKS 1257–326 to resolve the core-shift as a function of frequency on scales well below ∼12 μas. We find that the frequency dependence of the position of the scintillating component is r∝ν^{−0.1  ±  0.24} (99% confidence interval) and the frequency dependence of the size of the scintillating component is d∝ν^{−0.64  ±  0.006}. Together, these results imply that the jet opening angle increases with distance along the jet: $d \propto r^{n_d}$ with n_d > 1.8. We show that the flaring of the jet, and flat frequency dependence of the core position is broadly consistent with a model in which the jet is hydrostatically confined and traversing a steep pressure gradient in the confining medium with $p \propto r^{-n_p}$ and n_p ≳ 7. Such steep pressure gradients have previously been suggested based on very long baseline interferometry studies of the frequency dependent core shifts in AGNs.

We report on hard X-ray spectroscopy of solar microflares observed by the Wide-band All-sky Monitor (WAM), on board the Suzaku satellite, and by RHESSI. WAM transient data provide wide energy band (50 keV–5 MeV) spectra over a large field of view (∼2π sr) with a time resolution of 1 s. WAM is attractive as a hard X-ray solar flare monitor due to its large effective area (∼800 cm² at 100 keV, ∼13 times larger than that of RHESSI). In particular, this makes it possible to search for high energy emission in microflares that is well below the RHESSI background. The WAM solar flare list contains six GOES B-class microflares that were simultaneously observed by RHESSI between the launch of Suzaku in 2005 July and 2010 March. At 100 keV, the detected WAM fluxes are more than ∼20 times below the typical RHESSI instrumental background count rates. The RHESSI and WAM non-thermal spectra are in good agreement with a single power law with photon spectral indices between 3.3 and 4.5. In a second step, we also searched the RHESSI microflare list for events that should be detectable by WAM, assuming that the non-thermal power-law emission seen by RHESSI extends to >50 keV. From the 12 detectable events between 2005 July and 2007 February, 11 were indeed seen by WAM. This shows that microflares, similar to regular flares, can accelerate electrons to energies up to at least 100 keV.

We present the stray-light point-spread functions (PSFs) and their inverses we characterized for the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) EUV telescopes on board the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) spacecraft. The inverse kernels are approximate inverses under convolution. Convolving the original Level 1 images with them produces images with improved stray-light characteristics. We demonstrate the usefulness of these PSFs by applying them to two specific cases: photometry and differential emission measure (DEM) analysis. The PSFs consist of a narrow Gaussian core, a diffraction component, and a diffuse component represented by the sum of a Gaussian-truncated Lorentzian and a shoulder Gaussian. We determined the diffraction term using the measured geometry of the diffraction pattern identified in flare images and the theoretically computed intensities of the principal maxima of the first few diffraction orders. To determine the diffuse component, we fitted its parameterized model using iterative forward-modeling of the lunar interior in the SDO/AIA images from the 2011 March 4 lunar transit. We find that deconvolution significantly improves the contrast in dark features such as miniature coronal holes, though the effect was marginal in bright features. On a percentage-scattering basis, the PSFs for SDO/AIA are better by a factor of two than that of the EUV telescope on board the Transition Region And Coronal Explorer mission. A preliminary analysis suggests that deconvolution alone does not affect DEM analysis of small coronal loop segments with suitable background subtraction. We include the derived PSFs and their inverses as supplementary digital materials.

We analyzed two ultracarbonaceous interplanetary dust particles (IDPs) and two cometary Wild 2 particles with infrared spectroscopy. We characterized the carrier of the 3.4 μm band in these samples and compared its profile and the CH₂/CH₃ ratios to the 3.4 μm band in the diffuse interstellar medium (DISM), in the insoluble organic matter from three primitive meteorites, in asteroid 24 Themis, and in the coma of comet 103P/Hartley 2. We found that the 3.4 μm band in both Wild 2 and IDPs is similar, but different from all of the other astrophysical environments that we compared it to. The 3.4 μm band in the IDPs and Wild 2 particles is dominated by CH₂ groups, the peaks are narrower and stronger than in the meteorites, asteroid Themis, and the DISM. Also, the presence of the carbonyl group C=O at ∼1700 cm⁻¹ (5.8 μm) in most of the spectra of our samples indicates that these aliphatic chains have O bonded to them, which is quite different from astronomical spectra of the DISM. Based on all of these observations, we conclude that the origin of the carrier of the 3.4 μm band in the IDPs and Wild 2 samples is not interstellar; instead, we suggest that the origin lies in the outermost parts of the solar nebula.

Among many other measurable quantities, the summer of 2009 saw a considerable low in the radiative output of the Sun that was temporally coincident with the largest cosmic-ray flux ever measured at 1 AU. Combining measurements and observations made by the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) and Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) spacecraft we begin to explore the complexities of the descending phase of solar cycle 23, through the 2009 minimum into the ascending phase of solar cycle 24. A hemispheric asymmetry in magnetic activity is clearly observed and its evolution monitored and the resulting (prolonged) magnetic imbalance must have had a considerable impact on the structure and energetics of the heliosphere. While we cannot uniquely tie the variance and scale of the surface magnetism to the dwindling radiative and particulate output of the star, or the increased cosmic-ray flux through the 2009 minimum, the timing of the decline and rapid recovery in early 2010 would appear to inextricably link them. These observations support a picture where the Sun's hemispheres are significantly out of phase with each other. Studying historical sunspot records with this picture in mind shows that the northern hemisphere has been leading since the middle of the last century and that the hemispheric "dominance" has changed twice in the past 130 years. The observations presented give clear cause for concern, especially with respect to our present understanding of the processes that produce the surface magnetism in the (hidden) solar interior—hemispheric asymmetry is the normal state—the strong symmetry shown in 1996 was abnormal. Further, these observations show that the mechanism(s) which create and transport the magnetic flux are slowly changing with time and, it appears, with only loose coupling across the equator such that those asymmetries can persist for a considerable time. As the current asymmetry persists and the basal energetics of the system continue to dwindle we anticipate new radiative and particulate lows coupled with increased cosmic-ray fluxes heading into the next solar minimum.

Low Mach number, high beta fast mode shocks can occur in the magnetic reconnection outflows of solar flares. These shocks, which occur above flare loop tops, may provide the electron energization responsible for some of the observed hard X-rays and contemporaneous radio emission. Here we present new two-dimensional particle-in-cell simulations of low Mach number/high beta quasi-perpendicular shocks. The simulations show that electrons above a certain energy threshold experience shock-drift-acceleration. The transition energy between the thermal and non-thermal spectrum and the spectral index from the simulations are consistent with some of the X-ray spectra from RHESSI in the energy regime of E ≲ 40 ∼ 100 keV. Plasma instabilities associated with the shock structure such as the modified-two-stream and the electron whistler instabilities are identified using numerical solutions of the kinetic dispersion relations. We also show that the results from PIC simulations with reduced ion/electron mass ratio can be scaled to those with the realistic mass ratio.

We examine the relationship between the high-frequency (425 MHz) type II radio burst and the associated white-light coronal mass ejection (CME) that occurred on 2011 February 13. The radio burst had a drift rate of 2.5 MHz s⁻¹, indicating a relatively high shock speed. From SDO/AIA observations we find that a loop-like erupting front sweeps across high-density coronal loops near the start time of the burst (17:34:17 UT). The deduced distance of shock formation (0.06 Rs) from the flare center and speed of the shock (1100 km s⁻¹) using the measured density from SDO/AIA observations are comparable to the height (0.05 Rs, from the solar surface) and speed (700 km s⁻¹) of the CME leading edge observed by STEREO/EUVI. We conclude that the type II burst originates even in the low corona (<59 Mm or 0.08 Rs, above the solar surface) due to the fast CME shock passing through high-density loops.

Large-scale magnetic field threading an accretion disk is a key ingredient in the jet formation model. The most attractive scenario for the origin of such a large-scale field is the advection of the field by the gas in the accretion disk from the interstellar medium or a companion star. However, it is realized that outward diffusion of the accreted field is fast compared with the inward accretion velocity in a geometrically thin accretion disk if the value of the Prandtl number P_m is around unity. In this work, we revisit this problem considering the angular momentum of the disk to be removed predominantly by the magnetically driven outflows. The radial velocity of the disk is significantly increased due to the presence of the outflows. Using a simplified model for the vertical disk structure, we find that even moderately weak fields can cause sufficient angular momentum loss via a magnetic wind to balance outward diffusion. There are two equilibrium points, one at low field strengths corresponding to a plasma-beta at the midplane of order several hundred, and one for strong accreted fields, β ∼ 1. We surmise that the first is relevant for the accretion of weak, possibly external, fields through the outer parts of the disk, while the latter one could explain the tendency, observed in full three-dimensional numerical simulations, of strong flux bundles at the centers of disk to stay confined in spite of strong magnetororational instability turbulence surrounding them.

In the single-degenerate (SD) channel of a Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) explosion, a main-sequence (MS) donor star survives the explosion but it is stripped of mass and shock heated. An essentially unavoidable consequence of mass loss during the explosion is that the companion must have an overextended envelope after the explosion. While this has been noted previously, it has not been strongly emphasized as an inevitable consequence. We calculate the future evolution of the companion by injecting 2–6 × 10⁴⁷ erg into the stellar evolution model of a 1 M_☉ donor star based on the post-explosion progenitors seen in simulations. We find that, due to the Kelvin–Helmholtz collapse of the envelope, the companion must become significantly more luminous (10–10³ L_☉) for a long period of time (10³–10⁴ yr). The lack of such a luminous "leftover" star in the LMC supernova remnant SNR 0609–67.5 provides another piece of evidence against the SD scenario. We also show that none of the stars proposed as the survivors of the Tycho supernova, including Tycho G, could plausibly be the donor star. Additionally, luminous donors closer than ∼10 Mpc should be observable with the Hubble Space Telescope starting ∼2 yr post-peak. Such systems include SN 1937C, SN 1972E, SN 1986G, and SN 2011fe. Thus, the SD channel is already ruled out for at least two nearby SNe Ia and can easily be tested for a number of additional ones. We also discuss similar implications for the companions of core-collapse SNe.

We report on time-resolved optical imaging of the X-ray binary SAX J1808.4−3658 during its quiescent state and 2008 outburst. The binary, containing an accretion-powered millisecond pulsar, has a large sinusoidal-like modulation in its quiescent optical emission. We employ a Markov chain Monte Carlo technique to fit our multi-band light curve data in quiescence with an irradiated star model, and derive a tight constraint of $50^{+6}_{-5}$ deg on the inclination angle i of the binary system. The pulsar and its companion are constrained to have masses of $0.97^{+0.31}_{-0.22}\ M_{\odot }$ and $0.04^{+0.02}_{-0.01}\ M_{\odot }$ (both 1σ ranges), respectively. The dependence of these results on the measurements of the companion's projected radial velocity is discussed. We also find that the accretion disk had nearly constant optical fluxes over a ∼500 day period in the quiescent state our data covered, but started brightening 1.5 months before the 2008 outburst. Variations in modulation during the outburst were detected in our four observations made 7–12 days after the start of the outburst, and a sinusoidal-like modulation with 0.2 mag amplitude changed to have a smaller amplitude of 0.1 mag. The modulation variations are discussed. We estimate the albedo of the companion during its quiescence and the outburst, which was approximately 0 and 0.8 (for isotropic emission), respectively. This large difference probably provides additional evidence that the neutron star in the binary turns on as a radio pulsar in quiescence.

We present the first Hubble Space TelescopeWide Field Planetary Camera-2 imaging survey of the entire Crab Nebula, in the filters F502N ([O iii] emission), F673N ([S ii]), F631N ([O i]), and F547M (continuum). We use our mosaics to characterize the pulsar wind nebula (PWN) and its three-dimensional structure, the ionizational structure in the filaments forming at its periphery, the speed of the shock driven by the PWN into surrounding ejecta (by inferring the cooling rates behind the shock), and the morphology and ionizational structure of the Rayleigh–Taylor (R-T) fingers. We quantify a number of asymmetries between the northwest (NW) and southeast (SE) quadrants of the Crab Nebula. The lack of observed filaments in the NW, and our observations of the spatial extent of [O iii] emission lead us to conclude that cooling rates are slower, and therefore the shock speeds are greater, in the NW quadrant of the nebula, compared with the SE. We conclude that R-T fingers are longer, more ionizationally stratified, and apparently more massive in the NW than in the SE, and the R-T instability appears more fully developed in the NW.

A spatially varying mean magnetic field gives rise to so-called adiabatic focusing of energetic particles propagating through the universe. In the past, different analytical approaches have been proposed to calculate the particle diffusion coefficient along the mean field with focusing. In the present paper, we show how these different results are related to each other. New results for the parallel diffusion coefficient that are more general than previous results are also presented.

We present the analysis of 1207 RR Lyrae found in photometry taken by the Catalina Survey's Mount Lemmon telescope. By combining accurate distances for these stars with measurements for ∼14,000 type-ab RR Lyrae from the Catalina Schmidt telescope, we reveal an extended association that reaches Galactocentric distances beyond 100 kpc and overlaps the Sagittarius stream system. This result confirms earlier evidence for the existence of an outer halo tidal stream resulting from a disrupted stellar system. By comparing the RR Lyrae source density with that expected based on halo models, we find the detection has ∼8σ significance. We investigate the distances, radial velocities, metallicities, and period–amplitude distribution of the RR Lyrae. We find that both radial velocities and distances are inconsistent with current models of the Sagittarius stream. We also find tentative evidence for a division in source metallicities for the most distant sources. Following prior analyses, we compare the locations and distances of the RR Lyrae with photometrically selected candidate horizontal branch stars and find supporting evidence that this structure spans at least 60° of the sky. We investigate the prospects of an association between the stream and the unusual globular cluster NGC 2419.

We determined the chemical composition of a large sample of weak G band stars—a rare class of G and K giants of intermediate mass with unusual abundances of C, N, and Li. We have observed 24 weak G band stars with the 2.7 m Harlan J. Smith Telescope at the McDonald Observatory and derived spectroscopic abundances for C, N, O, and Li, as well as for selected elements from Na–Eu. The results show that the atmospheres of weak G band stars are highly contaminated with CN-cycle products. The C underabundance is about a factor of 20 larger than for normal giants and the ¹²C/¹³C ratio approaches the CN-cycle equilibrium value. In addition to the striking CN-cycle signature the strong N overabundance may indicate the presence of partially ON-cycled material in the atmospheres of the weak G band stars. The exact mechanism responsible for the transport of the elements to the surface has yet to be identified but could be induced by rapid rotation of the main sequence progenitors of the stars. The unusually high Li abundances in some of the stars are an indicator for Li production by the Cameron–Fowler mechanism. A quantitative prediction of a weak G band star's Li abundance is complicated by the strong temperature sensitivity of the mechanism and its participants. In addition to the unusual abundances of CN-cycle elements and Li, we find an overabundance of Na that is in accordance with the NeNa chain running in parallel with the CN cycle. Apart from these peculiarities, the element abundances in a weak G band star's atmosphere are consistent with those of normal giants.

We have measured the CH G band (CH(G)) index for evolved stars in the globular cluster M3 based on the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) spectroscopic survey. It is found that there is a useful way to select red giant branch (RGB) stars from the contamination of other evolved stars such as asymptotic giant branch (AGB) and red horizontal branch (RHB) stars by using the CH(G) index versus (g − r)₀ diagram if the metallicity is known from the spectra. When this diagram is applied to field giant stars with similar metallicity, we establish a calibration of CH(G) = 1.625(g − r)₀ − 1.174(g − r)²₀ − 0.934. This method is confirmed by stars with [Fe/H] ∼ −2.3 where spectra of member stars in globular clusters M15 and M92 are available in the SDSS database. We thus extend this kind of calibration to every individual metallicity bin ranging from [Fe/H] ∼ −3.0 to [Fe/H] ∼ 0.0 by using field red giant stars with 0.4 ⩽ (g − r)₀ ⩽ 1.0. The metallicity-dependent calibrations give CH(G) = 1.625(g − r)₀ − 1.174(g − r)²₀ + 0.060[Fe/H] − 0.830 for −3.0 < [Fe/H] ⩽ −1.2 and CH(G) = 0.953(g − r)₀ − 0.655(g − r)²₀ + 0.060[Fe/H] − 0.650 for −1.2 < [Fe/H] < 0.0. The calibrations are valid for the SDSS spectroscopic data set, and they cannot be applied blindly to other data sets. With the two calibrations, a significant number of the contaminating stars (AGB and RHB stars) were excluded and thus a clear sample of red giant stars is obtained by selecting stars within ±0.05 mag of the calibration. The sample is published online and it is expected that this large and clean sample of RGB stars will provide new information on the formation and evolution of the Galaxy.

We present radial velocities and chemical abundance ratios of [Fe/H], [O/Fe], [Si/Fe], and [Ca/Fe] for 264 red giant branch stars in three Galactic bulge off-axis fields located near (l, b) = (−5.5, −7), (−4, −9), and (+8.5, +9). The results are based on equivalent width and spectrum synthesis analyses of moderate resolution (R ≈ 18,000), high signal-to-noise ratio (S/N ∼ 75–300 pixel^-1) spectra obtained with the Hydra spectrographs on the Blanco 4 m and WIYN 3.5 m telescopes. The targets were selected from the blue side of the giant branch to avoid cool stars that would be strongly affected by CN and TiO; however, a comparison of the color–metallicity distribution in literature samples suggests that our selection of bluer targets should not present a significant bias against metal-rich stars. We find a full range in metallicity that spans [Fe/H] ≈−1.5 to +0.5, and that, in accordance with the previously observed minor-axis vertical metallicity gradient, the median [Fe/H] also declines with increasing Galactic latitude in off-axis fields. The off-axis vertical [Fe/H] gradient in the southern bulge is estimated to be ∼0.4 dex kpc^-1; however, comparison with the minor-axis data suggests that a strong radial gradient does not exist. The (+8.5, +9) field exhibits a higher than expected metallicity, with a median [Fe/H] = −0.23, that might be related to a stronger presence of the X-shaped bulge structure along that line-of-sight. This could also be the cause of an anomalous increase in the median radial velocity for intermediate metallicity stars in the (+8.5, +9) field. However, the overall radial velocity and dispersion for each field are in good agreement with recent surveys and bulge models. All fields exhibit an identical, strong decrease in velocity dispersion with increasing metallicity that is consistent with observations in similar minor-axis outer bulge fields. Additionally, the [O/Fe], [Si/Fe], and [Ca/Fe] versus [Fe/H] trends are identical among our three fields, and are in good agreement with past bulge studies. We find that stars with [Fe/H] ≲ −0.5 are α-enhanced, and that the [α/Fe] ratios decline at higher metallicity. At [Fe/H] ≲ 0, the α-element trends are indistinguishable from the halo and thick disk, and the variations in the behavior of individual α-elements are consistent with production in massive stars and a rapid bulge formation timescale.

Most millisecond pulsars with low-mass companions are in systems with either helium-core white dwarfs or non-degenerate ("black widow" or "redback") stars. A candidate counterpart to PSR J1816+4510 was identified by Kaplan et al. whose properties were suggestive of both types of companions although identical to neither. We have assembled optical spectroscopy of the candidate companion and confirm that it is part of the binary system with a radial velocity amplitude of 343 ± 7 km s⁻¹, implying a high pulsar mass, M_psrsin ³i = 1.84 ± 0.11 M_☉, and a companion mass M_csin ³i = 0.193 ± 0.012 M_☉, where i is the inclination of the orbit. The companion appears similar to proto-white dwarfs/sdB stars, with a gravity log₁₀(g) = 4.9 ± 0.3, and effective temperature 16, 000 ± 500 K. The strongest lines in the spectrum are from hydrogen, but numerous lines from helium, calcium, silicon, and magnesium are present as well, with implied abundances of roughly 10 times solar (relative to hydrogen). As such, while from the spectrum the companion to PSR J1816+4510 is superficially most similar to a low-mass white dwarf, it has much lower gravity, is substantially larger, and shows substantial metals. Furthermore, it is able to produce ionized gas eclipses, which had previously been seen only for low-mass, non-degenerate companions in redback or black widow systems. We discuss the companion in relation to other sources, but find that we understand neither its nature nor its origins. Thus, the system is interesting for understanding unusual stellar products of binary evolution, as well as, independent of its nature, for determining neutron-star masses.

The presence of ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic nanoparticles in the interstellar medium would give rise to magnetic dipole radiation at microwave and submillimeter frequencies. Such grains may account for the strong millimeter-wavelength emission observed from a number of low-metallicity galaxies, including the Small Magellanic Cloud. We calculate the absorption and scattering cross sections for such grains, with particular attention to metallic Fe, magnetite Fe₃O₄, and maghemite γ-Fe₂O₃, all potentially present in the interstellar medium. The rate of Davis–Greenstein alignment by magnetic dissipation is also estimated. We determine the temperature of free-flying magnetic grains heated by starlight and calculate the polarization of the magnetic dipole emission from both free-fliers and inclusions. For inclusions, the magnetic dipole emission is expected to be polarized orthogonally relative to the normal electric dipole radiation. Magnetic dipole radiation will contribute significantly to the 20–40 GHz anomalous microwave emission only if a large fraction of the Fe is in metallic Fe iron nanoparticles with extreme elongations. Finally, we present self-consistent dielectric functions for metallic Fe, magnetite Fe₃O₄, and maghemite γ-Fe₂O₃, enabling calculation of absorption and scattering cross sections from microwave to X-ray wavelengths.