Table of contents

Gas giant planets orbiting within 0.1 AU of their host stars are unlikely to have formed in situ and are evidence for planetary migration. It is debated whether the typical hot Jupiter smoothly migrated inward from its formation location through the proto-planetary disk, or was perturbed by another body onto a highly eccentric orbit, which tidal dissipation subsequently shrank and circularized during close stellar passages. Socrates and collaborators predicted that the latter model should produce a population of super-eccentric proto-hot Jupiters readily observable by Kepler. We find a paucity of such planets in the Kepler sample, which is inconsistent with the theoretical prediction with 96.9% confidence. Observational effects are unlikely to explain this discrepancy. We find that the fraction of hot Jupiters with an orbital period P > 3 days produced by the star–planet Kozai mechanism does not exceed (at two-sigma) 44%. Our results may indicate that disk migration is the dominant channel for producing hot Jupiters with P > 3 days. Alternatively, the typical hot Jupiter may have been perturbed to a high eccentricity by interactions with a planetary rather than stellar companion, and began tidal circularization much interior to 1 AU after multiple scatterings. A final alternative is that early in the tidal circularization process at high eccentricities tidal circularization occurs much more rapidly than later in the process at low eccentricities, although this is contrary to current tidal theories.

As an extension of the ideas of Hanbury-Brown and Twiss, a method is proposed to eliminate the phase noise of white chaotic light in the regime where it is dominant, and to measure the much smaller Poisson fluctuations from which the incoming flux can be reconstructed. The best effect is achieved when the timing resolution is finer than the inverse bandwidth of the spectral filter. There may be applications to radio astronomy at the phase noise dominated frequencies of 1–10 GHz, in terms of potentially increasing the sensitivity of telescopes by an order of magnitude.

The high angular resolution technique of non-redundant masking (NRM) or aperture masking interferometry (AMI) has yielded images of faint protoplanetary companions of nearby stars from the ground. AMI on James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)'s Near Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrograph (NIRISS) has a lower thermal background than ground-based facilities and does not suffer from atmospheric instability. NIRISS AMI images are likely to have 90%–95% Strehl ratio between 2.77 and 4.8 μm. In this paper we quantify factors that limit the raw point source contrast of JWST NRM. We develop an analytic model of the NRM point spread function which includes different optical path delays (pistons) between mask holes and fit the model parameters with image plane data. It enables a straightforward way to exclude bad pixels, is suited to limited fields of view, and can incorporate effects such as intra-pixel sensitivity variations. We simulate various sources of noise to estimate their effect on the standard deviation of closure phase, σ_CP (a proxy for binary point source contrast). If σ_CP < 10⁻⁴ radians—a contrast ratio of 10 mag—young accreting gas giant planets (e.g., in the nearby Taurus star-forming region) could be imaged with JWST NIRISS. We show the feasibility of using NIRISS' NRM with the sub-Nyquist sampled F277W, which would enable some exoplanet chemistry characterization. In the presence of small piston errors, the dominant sources of closure phase error (depending on pixel sampling, and filter bandwidth) are flat field errors and unmodeled variations in intra-pixel sensitivity. The in-flight stability of NIRISS will determine how well these errors can be calibrated by observing a point source. Our results help develop efficient observing strategies for space-based NRM.

About 20% of exoplanets discovered by radial velocity surveys reside in stellar binaries. To clarify their origin one has to understand the dynamics of planetesimals in protoplanetary disks within binaries. The standard description, accounting for only gas drag and gravity of the companion star, has been challenged recently, as the gravity of the protoplanetary disk was shown to play a crucial role in planetesimal dynamics. An added complication is the tendency of protoplanetary disks in binaries to become eccentric, giving rise to additional excitation of planetesimal eccentricity. Here, for the first time, we analytically explore the secular dynamics of planetesimals in binaries such as α Cen and γ Cep under the combined action of (1) gravity of the eccentric protoplanetary disk, (2) perturbations due to the (coplanar) eccentric companion, and (3) gas drag. We derive explicit solutions for the behavior of planetesimal eccentricity e_p in non-precessing disks (and in precessing disks in certain limits). We obtain the analytical form of the distribution of the relative velocities of planetesimals, which is a key input for understanding their collisional evolution. Disk gravity strongly influences relative velocities and tends to push the sizes of planetesimals colliding with comparable objects at the highest speed to small values, ∼1 km. We also find that planetesimals in eccentric protoplanetary disks apsidally aligned with the binary orbit collide at lower relative velocities than in misaligned disks. Our results highlight the decisive role that disk gravity plays in planetesimal dynamics in binaries.

Planet formation in small-separation (∼20 AU) eccentric binaries such as γ Cephei or α Centauri is believed to be adversely affected by the presence of the stellar companion. Strong dynamical excitation of planetesimals by the eccentric companion can result in collisional destruction (rather than growth) of 1–100 km objects, giving rise to the "fragmentation barrier" for planet formation. We revise this issue using a novel description of secular dynamics of planetesimals in binaries, which accounts for the gravity of the eccentric, coplanar protoplanetary disk, as well as gas drag. By studying planetesimal collision outcomes, we show, in contrast to many previous studies, that planetesimal growth and subsequent formation of planets (including gas giants) in AU-scale orbits within ∼20 AU separation binaries may be possible, provided that the protoplanetary disks are massive (≳ 10⁻² M_☉) and only weakly eccentric (disk eccentricity ≲ 0.01). These requirements are compatible with both the existence of massive (several M_J) planets in γ Cep-like systems and the results of recent simulations of gaseous disks in eccentric binaries. Terrestrial and Neptune-like planets can also form in lower-mass disks at small (sub-AU) radii. We find that the fragmentation barrier is less of a problem in eccentric disks that are apsidally aligned with the binary orbit. Alignment gives rise to special locations, where (1) relative planetesimal velocities are low and (2) the timescale of their drag-induced radial drift is long. This causes planetesimal pileup at such locations in the disk and promotes their growth locally, helping to alleviate the timescale problem for core formation.

Detections of planets in eccentric, close (separations of ∼20 AU) binary systems such as α Cen or γ Cep provide an important test of planet formation theories. Gravitational perturbations from the companion are expected to excite high planetesimal eccentricities, resulting in destruction rather than growth of objects with sizes of up to several hundred kilometers in collisions of similar-sized bodies. It was recently suggested that the gravity of a massive axisymmetric gaseous disk in which planetesimals are embedded drives rapid precession of their orbits, suppressing eccentricity excitation. However, disks in binaries are themselves expected to be eccentric, leading to additional planetesimal excitation. Here we develop a secular theory of eccentricity evolution for planetesimals perturbed by the gravity of an elliptical protoplanetary disk (neglecting gas drag) and the companion. For the first time, we derive an expression for the disturbing function due to an eccentric disk, which can be used for a variety of other astrophysical problems. We obtain explicit analytical solutions for planetesimal eccentricity evolution neglecting gas drag and delineate four different regimes of dynamical excitation. We show that in systems with massive (≳ 10⁻² M_☉) disks, planetesimal eccentricity is usually determined by the gravity of the eccentric disk alone, and is comparable to the disk eccentricity. As a result, the latter imposes a lower limit on collisional velocities of solids, making their growth problematic. In the absence of gas drag, this fragmentation barrier can be alleviated if the gaseous disk rapidly precesses or if its own self-gravity is efficient at lowering disk eccentricity.

Propargyl alcohol (CHCCH₂OH) is a known stable isomer of the propenal (CH₂CHCHO) molecule that was reported to be present in the interstellar medium (ISM). At astrochemical conditions in the laboratory, icy layers of propargyl alcohol grown at 85 K were irradiated by 2 keV electrons and probed by a Fourier Transform InfraRed spectrometer in the mid-infrared (IR) region, 4000–500 cm⁻¹. Propargyl alcohol ice under astrochemical conditions was studied for the first time; therefore, IR spectra of reported amorphous (85 K) and crystalline (180 K) propargyl alcohol ices can be used to detect its presence in the ISM. Moreover, our experiments clearly show benzene (C₆H₆) formation to be the major product from propargyl alcohol irradiation, confirming the role of propargyl radicals (C₃H₃) formed from propargyl alcohol dissociation that was long expected based on theoretical modeling to effectively synthesize C₆H₆ in the interstellar icy mantles.

We present the BANYAN All-Sky Survey (BASS) catalog, consisting of 228 new late-type (M4–L6) candidate members of nearby young moving groups (YMGs) with an expected false-positive rate of ∼13%. This sample includes 79 new candidate young brown dwarfs and 22 planetary-mass objects. These candidates were identified through the first systematic all-sky survey for late-type low-mass stars and brown dwarfs in YMGs. We cross-matched the Two Micron All Sky Survey and AllWISE catalogs outside of the galactic plane to build a sample of 98,970 potential ⩾M5 dwarfs in the solar neighborhood and calculated their proper motions with typical precisions of 5–15 mas yr⁻¹. We selected highly probable candidate members of several YMGs from this sample using the Bayesian Analysis for Nearby Young AssociatioNs II tool (BANYAN II). We used the most probable statistical distances inferred from BANYAN II to estimate the spectral type and mass of these candidate YMG members. We used this unique sample to show tentative signs of mass segregation in the AB Doradus moving group and the Tucana-Horologium and Columba associations. The BASS sample has already been successful in identifying several new young brown dwarfs in earlier publications, and will be of great interest in studying the initial mass function of YMGs and for the search of exoplanets by direct imaging; the input sample of potential close-by ⩾M5 dwarfs will be useful to study the kinematics of low-mass stars and brown dwarfs and search for new proper motion pairs.

We performed a systematic X-ray study of eight nearby γ-ray bright radio galaxies with Suzaku in order to understand the origins of their X-ray emissions. The Suzaku spectra for five of those have been presented previously, while the remaining three (M87, PKS 0625−354, and 3C 78) are presented here for the first time. Based on the Fe-K line strength, X-ray variability, and X-ray power-law photon indices, and using additional information on the [O iii] line emission, we argue for a jet origin of the observed X-ray emission in these three sources. We also analyzed five years of Fermi Large Area Telescope (LAT) GeV gamma-ray data on PKS 0625−354 and 3C 78 to understand these sources within the blazar paradigm. We found significant γ-ray variability in the former object. Overall, we note that the Suzaku spectra for both PKS 0625−354 and 3C 78 are rather soft, while the LAT spectra are unusually hard when compared with other γ-ray detected low-power (FR I) radio galaxies. We demonstrate that the constructed broadband spectral energy distributions of PKS 0625−354 and 3C 78 are well described by a one-zone synchrotron/synchrotron self-Compton model. The results of the modeling indicate lower bulk Lorentz factors compared to those typically found in other BL Lacertae (BL Lac) objects, but consistent with the values inferred from modeling other LAT-detected FR I radio galaxies. Interestingly, the modeling also implies very high peak (∼10¹⁶ Hz) synchrotron frequencies in the two analyzed sources, contrary to previously suggested scenarios for Fanaroff–Riley (FR) type I/BL Lac unification. We discuss the implications of our findings in the context of the FR I/BL Lac unification schemes.

A previous paper by Bailey & Basu shows analysis of density and mass-to-flux ratio maps for simulations with either an ionization profile which takes into account photoionization (step-like profile) or a cosmic ray only ionization profile. We extend this study to analyze the effect of these ionization profiles on velocity structures, kinematics, and synthetic spectra. Clump regions are found to occur at the convergence of two flows with a low velocity region and velocity direction transition occurring at the junction. Models with evident substructure show that core formation occurs on the periphery of these velocity valleys. Analysis of synthetic spectra reveals the presence of large non-thermal components within low-density gas, especially for models with the step-like ionization profile. All cores show small, sub-thermal relative motions compared to background gas. Large deviations within this analysis are due to the line of sight intersecting low- and high-density regions across the velocity switch transition. Positive deviations correspond to a foreground core moving away from the observer while negative deviations correspond to a background core moving toward the observer. Comparison of velocities resulting from different ionization profiles suggest that high ionization fractions yield supersonic velocities, up to two times the sound speed, while regions with low ionization fractions tend to be subsonic or mildly supersonic. This suggests that the transition to coherence within cores could be a transition between high and low ionization fractions within the gas.

We analyzed light curves of seven relatively slower novae, PW Vul, V705 Cas, GQ Mus, RR Pic, V5558 Sgr, HR Del, and V723 Cas, based on an optically thick wind theory of nova outbursts. For fast novae, free–free emission dominates the spectrum in optical bands rather than photospheric emission, and nova optical light curves follow the universal decline law. Faster novae blow stronger winds with larger mass-loss rates. Because the brightness of free–free emission depends directly on the wind mass-loss rate, faster novae show brighter optical maxima. In slower novae, however, we must take into account photospheric emission because of their lower wind mass-loss rates. We calculated three model light curves of free–free emission, photospheric emission, and their sum for various white dwarf (WD) masses with various chemical compositions of their envelopes and fitted reasonably with observational data of optical, near-IR (NIR), and UV bands. From light curve fittings of the seven novae, we estimated their absolute magnitudes, distances, and WD masses. In PW Vul and V705 Cas, free–free emission still dominates the spectrum in the optical and NIR bands. In the very slow novae, RR Pic, V5558 Sgr, HR Del, and V723 Cas, photospheric emission dominates the spectrum rather than free–free emission, which makes a deviation from the universal decline law. We have confirmed that the absolute brightnesses of our model light curves are consistent with the distance moduli of four classical novae with known distances (GK Per, V603 Aql, RR Pic, and DQ Her). We also discussed the reason why the very slow novae are about ∼1 mag brighter than the proposed maximum magnitude versus rate of decline relation.

We present global metallicity properties, metallicity distribution functions (MDFs), and radial metallicity profiles for the six most luminous M31 dwarf galaxy satellites: M32, NGC 205, NGC 185, NGC 147, Andromeda VII, and Andromeda II. The results presented are the first spectroscopic MDFs for dwarf systems surrounding a host galaxy other than the Milky Way (MW). Our sample consists of individual metallicity measurements for 1243 red giant branch member stars spread across these six systems. We determine metallicities based on the strength of the Ca ii triplet lines using the empirical calibration of Carrera et al., which is calibrated over the metallicity range −4 < [Fe/H] <+0.5. We find that these M31 satellites lie on the same luminosity–metallicity relationship as the MW dwarf satellites. We do not find a trend between the internal metallicity spread and galaxy luminosity, contrary to previous studies. The MDF widths of And II and And VII are similar to the MW dwarf spheroidal (dSph) satellites of comparable luminosity; however, our four brightest M31 dwarf satellites are more luminous than any of the MW dSphs and have broader MDFs. The MDFs of our six M31 dwarf satellites are consistent with the leaky box model of chemical evolution, although our metallicity errors allow a wide range of evolution models. We find a significant radial gradient in metallicity in only two of our six systems, NGC 185 and Andromeda II, and flat radial metallicity gradients in the rest of our sample with no observed correlation between rotational support and radial metallicity gradients. Although the average properties and radial trends of the M31 dwarf galaxies agree with their MW counterparts at similar luminosity, the detailed MDFs are different, particularly at the metal-rich end.

We consider the time derivatives of the period P of pulsars at the Galactic Center due to variations in their orbital Doppler shifts. We show that in conjunction with a measurement of a pulsar's proper motion and its projected separation from the supermassive black hole, Sgr A*, measuring two of the three derivatives $\dot{P}$, $\ddot{P}$, or $\dddot{P}$ sets a constraint that allows for the recovery of the complete six phase space coordinates of the pulsar's orbit, as well as the enclosed mass within the orbit. Thus, one can use multiple pulsars at different distances from Sgr A* to determine the radial mass distribution of stars and stellar remnants at the Galactic center. Furthermore, we consider the effect of passing stars on the pulsar's period derivatives and show how it can be exploited to measure the characteristic stellar mass in the Galactic center.

We present the results obtained from the linear stability analysis and 2.5 dimensional magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulations of magnetorotational instability (MRI), including the effects of cosmic rays (CRs). We took into account the CR diffusion along the magnetic field but neglected the cross-field-line diffusion. Two models are considered in this paper: the shearing box model and differentially rotating cylinder model. We studied how MRI is affected by the initial CR pressure (i.e., energy) distribution. In the shearing box model, the initial state is uniform distribution. Linear analysis shows that the growth rate of MRI does not depend on the value of the CR diffusion coefficient. In the differentially rotating cylinder model, the initial state is a constant angular momentum polytropic disk threaded by a weak uniform vertical magnetic field. Linear analysis shows that the growth rate of MRI becomes larger if the CR diffusion coefficient is larger. Both results are confirmed by MHD simulations. The MHD simulation results show that the outward movement of matter by the growth of MRI is not impeded by the CR pressure gradient, and the centrifugal force that acts on the concentrated matter becomes larger. Consequently, the growth rate of MRI is increased. On the other hand, if the initial CR pressure is uniform, then the growth rate of the MRI barely depends on the value of the CR diffusion coefficient.

Carbonyl sulfide (OCS) is a key molecule in astrobiology that acts as a catalyst in peptide synthesis by coupling amino acids. Experimental studies suggest that hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), a precursor of OCS, could be present in astrophysical environments. In the present study, we used a microwave-discharge hydrogen-flow lamp, simulating the interstellar UV field, and a monochromatic synchrotron light beam to irradiate CO:H₂S and CO₂:H₂S ice mixtures at 14 K with vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) or extreme ultraviolet (EUV) photons in order to study the effect of the photon energy and carbon source on the formation mechanisms and production yields of S-containing products (CS₂, OCS, SO₂, etc.). Results show that (1) the photo-induced OCS production efficiency in CO:H₂S ice mixtures is higher than that of CO₂:H₂S ice mixtures; (2) a lower concentration of H₂S enhances the production efficiency of OCS in both ice mixtures; and (3) the formation pathways of CS₂ differ significantly upon VUV and EUV irradiations. Furthermore, CS₂ was produced only after VUV photoprocessing of CO:H₂S ices, while the VUV-induced production of SO₂ occurred only in CO₂:H₂S ice mixtures. More generally, the production yields of OCS, H₂S₂, and CS₂ were studied as a function of the irradiation photon energy. Heavy S-bearing compounds were also observed using mass spectrometry during the warm-up of VUV/EUV-irradiated CO:H₂S ice mixtures. The presence of S-polymers in dust grains may account for the missing sulfur in dense clouds and circumstellar environments.

Two solar type II radio bursts, separated by ∼24 hr in time, are examined together. Both events are associated with coronal mass ejections (CMEs) erupting from the same active region (NOAA 11176) beneath a well-observed helmet streamer. We find that the type II emissions in both events ended once the CME/shock fronts passed the white-light streamer tip, which is presumably the magnetic cusp of the streamer. This leads us to conjecture that the closed magnetic arcades of the streamer may play a role in electron acceleration and type II excitation at coronal shocks. To examine such a conjecture, we conduct a test-particle simulation for electron dynamics within a large-scale partially closed streamer magnetic configuration swept by a coronal shock. We find that the closed field lines play the role of an electron trap via which the electrons are sent back to the shock front multiple times and therefore accelerated to high energies by the shock. Electrons with an initial energy of 300 eV can be accelerated to tens of keV concentrating at the loop apex close to the shock front with a counter-streaming distribution at most locations. These electrons are energetic enough to excite Langmuir waves and radio bursts. Considering the fact that most solar eruptions originate from closed field regions, we suggest that the scenario may be important for the generation of more metric type IIs. This study also provides an explanation of the general ending frequencies of metric type IIs at or above 20–30 MHz and the disconnection issue between metric and interplanetary type IIs.

An analysis of Chandra ACIS data for two relatively bright and narrow portions of the northwestern rim of G266.2−1.2 (a.k.a. RX J0852.0–4622 or Vela Jr.) reveal evidence of a radial displacement of 2.40 ± 0.56 arcsec between 2003 and 2008. The corresponding expansion rate (0.42 ± 0.10 arcsec yr⁻¹ or 13.6% ± 4.2% kyr⁻¹) is about half the rate reported for an analysis of XMM-Newton data from a similar, but not identical, portion of the rim over a similar, but not identical, time interval (0.84 ± 0.23 arcsec yr⁻¹). If the Chandra rate is representative of the remnant as a whole, then the results of a hydrodynamic analysis suggest that G266.2−1.2 is between 2.4 and 5.1 kyr old if it is expanding into a uniform ambient medium (whether or not it was produced by a Type Ia or Type II event). If the remnant is expanding into the material shed by a steady stellar wind, then the age could be as much as 50% higher. The Chandra expansion rate and a requirement that the shock speed be greater than or equal to 1000 km s⁻¹ yields a lower limit on the distance of 0.5 kpc. An analysis of previously published distance estimates and constraints suggests G266.2−1.2 is no further than 1.0 kpc. This range of distances is consistent with the distance to the nearer of two groups of material in the Vela Molecular Ridge (0.7 ± 0.2 kpc) and to the Vel OB1 association (0.8 kpc).

We apply our 3D debris disk model, SMACK, to simulate a planet on a circular orbit near a ring of planetesimals that are experiencing destructive collisions. Previous simulations of a planet opening a gap in a collisionless debris disk have found that the width of the gap scales as the planet mass to the 2/7th power (α = 2/7). We find that gap sizes in a collisional disk still obey a power law scaling with planet mass, but that the index α of the power law depends on the age of the system t relative to the collisional timescale t_coll of the disk by α = 0.32(t/t_coll)^−0.04, with inferred planet masses up to five times smaller than those predicted by the classical gap law. The increased gap sizes likely stem from the interaction between collisions and the mean motion resonances near the chaotic zone. We investigate the effects of the initial eccentricity distribution of the disk particles and find a negligible effect on the gap size at Jovian planet masses, since collisions tend to erase memory of the initial particle eccentricity distributions. Finally, we find that the presence of Trojan analogs is a potentially powerful diagnostic of planets in the mass range ∼1–10 M_Jup. We apply our model to place new upper limits on planets around Fomalhaut, HR 4796 A, HD 202628, HD 181327, and β Pictoris.

We perform three-dimensional stratified shearing-box magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulations on the gas dynamics of protoplanetary disks with a net vertical magnetic flux of B_z0. All three nonideal MHD effects, Ohmic resistivity, the Hall effect, and ambipolar diffusion, are included in a self-consistent manner based on equilibrium chemistry. We focus on regions toward outer disk radii, from 5 to 60 AU, where Ohmic resistivity tends to become negligible, ambipolar diffusion dominates over an extended region across the disk height, and the Hall effect largely controls the dynamics near the disk midplane. We find that at around R = 5 AU the system launches a laminar or weakly turbulent magnetocentrifugal wind when the net vertical field B_z0 is not too weak. Moreover, the wind is able to achieve and maintain a configuration with reflection symmetry at the disk midplane. The case with anti-aligned field polarity (${\boldsymbol{\Omega }}\cdot {\boldsymbol{B}}_{z0}<0$) is more susceptible to the magnetorotational instability (MRI) when B_z0 decreases, leading to an outflow oscillating in radial directions and very inefficient angular momentum transport. At the outer disk around and beyond R = 30 AU, the system shows vigorous MRI turbulence in the surface layer due to far-UV ionization, which efficiently drives disk accretion. The Hall effect affects the stability of the midplane region to the MRI, leading to strong/weak Maxwell stress for aligned/anti-aligned field polarities. Nevertheless, the midplane region is only very weakly turbulent in both cases. Overall, the basic picture is analogous to the conventional layered accretion scenario applied to the outer disk. In addition, we find that the vertical magnetic flux is strongly concentrated into thin, azimuthally extended shells in most of our simulations beyond 15 AU, leading to enhanced radial density variations know as zonal flows. Theoretical implications and observational consequences are briefly discussed.

Inner cavities and annular gaps in circumstellar disks are possible signposts of giant planet formation. The young star HD 142527 hosts a massive protoplanetary disk with a large cavity that extends up to 140 AU from the central star, as seen in continuum images at infrared and millimeter wavelengths. Estimates of the survival of gas inside disk cavities are needed to discriminate between clearing scenarios. We present a spatially and spectrally resolved carbon monoxide isotopologue observations of the gas-rich disk HD 142527, in the J = 2–1 line of ¹²CO, ¹³CO, and C¹⁸O obtained with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA). We detect emission coming from inside the dust-depleted cavity in all three isotopologues. Based on our analysis of the gas in the dust cavity, the ¹²CO emission is optically thick, while ¹³CO and C¹⁸O emissions are both optically thin. The total mass of residual gas inside the cavity is ∼1.5–2 M_Jup. We model the gas with an axisymmetric disk model. Our best-fit model shows that the cavity radius is much smaller in CO than it is in millimeter continuum and scattered light observations, with a gas cavity that does not extend beyond 105 AU (at 3σ). The gap wall at its outer edge is diffuse and smooth in the gas distribution, while in dust continuum it is manifestly sharper. The inclination angle, as estimated from the high velocity channel maps, is 28 ± 0.5 deg, higher than in previous estimates, assuming a fix central star mass of 2.2 M_☉.

A possible connection between the presence of large quantities of warm (T ⩾ 200 K) circumstellar dust at youthful stars and the existence of wide-separation companion stars has been noted in the literature. Here we point out the existence of a distant companion star to V488 Per, a K-type member of the α Persei cluster with the largest known fractional excess infrared luminosity (∼16%) of any main sequence star. We also report the presence of a distant companion to the previously recognized warm dust star 2M1337. With these discoveries the existence of a cause and effect relationship between a distant companion and large quantities of warm dust in orbit around youthful stars now seems compelling.

During the Spitzer Space Telescope cryogenic mission, astronomers obtained Infrared Spectrograph (IRS) observations of hundreds of debris disk candidates that have been compiled in the Spitzer IRS Debris Disk Catalog. We have discovered 10 and/or 20 μm silicate emission features toward 120 targets in the catalog and modeled the IRS spectra of these sources, consistent with MIPS 70 μm observations, assuming that the grains are composed of silicates (olivine, pyroxene, forsterite, and enstatite) and are located either in a continuous disk with power-law size and surface density distributions or thin rings that are well-characterized using two separate dust grain temperatures. For systems better fit by the continuous disk model, we find that (1) the dust size distribution power-law index is consistent with that expected from a collisional cascade, q = 3.5–4.0, with a large number of values outside this range, and (2) the minimum grain size, a_min, increases with stellar luminosity, L_*, but the dependence of a_min on L_* is weaker than expected from radiation pressure alone. In addition, we also find that (3) the crystalline fraction of dust in debris disks evolves as a function of time with a large dispersion in crystalline fractions for stars of any particular stellar age or mass, (4) the disk inner edge is correlated with host star mass, and (5) there exists substantial variation in the properties of coeval disks in Sco-Cen, indicating that the observed variation is probably due to stochasticity and diversity in planet formation.

We apply the Finkbeiner et al. two-component thermal dust emission model to the Planck High Frequency Instrument maps. This parameterization of the far-infrared dust spectrum as the sum of two modified blackbodies (MBBs) serves as an important alternative to the commonly adopted single-MBB dust emission model. Analyzing the joint Planck/DIRBE dust spectrum, we show that two-component models provide a better fit to the 100–3000 GHz emission than do single-MBB models, though by a lesser margin than found by Finkbeiner et al. based on FIRAS and DIRBE. We also derive full-sky 61 resolution maps of dust optical depth and temperature by fitting the two-component model to Planck 217–857 GHz along with DIRBE/IRAS 100 μm data. Because our two-component model matches the dust spectrum near its peak, accounts for the spectrum's flattening at millimeter wavelengths, and specifies dust temperature at 61 FWHM, our model provides reliable, high-resolution thermal dust emission foreground predictions from 100 to 3000 GHz. We find that, in diffuse sky regions, our two-component 100–217 GHz predictions are on average accurate to within 2.2%, while extrapolating the Planck Collaboration et al. single-MBB model systematically underpredicts emission by 18.8% at 100 GHz, 12.6% at 143 GHz, and 7.9% at 217 GHz. We calibrate our two-component optical depth to reddening, and compare with reddening estimates based on stellar spectra. We find the dominant systematic problems in our temperature/reddening maps to be zodiacal light on large angular scales and the cosmic infrared background anisotropy on small angular scales.

Aperiodic variability is a characteristic feature of young stars, massive stars, and active galactic nuclei. With the recent proliferation of time-domain surveys, it is increasingly essential to develop methods to quantify and analyze aperiodic variability. We develop three timescale metrics that have been little used in astronomy—Δm–Δt plots, peak-finding, and Gaussian process regression—and present simulations comparing their effectiveness across a range of aperiodic light curve shapes, characteristic timescales, observing cadences, and signal to noise ratios. We find that Gaussian process regression is easily confused by noise and by irregular sampling, even when the model being fit reflects the process underlying the light curve, but that Δm–Δt plots and peak-finding can coarsely characterize timescales across a broad region of parameter space. We make public the software we used for our simulations, both in the spirit of open research and to allow others to carry out analogous simulations for their own observing programs.

Cold fronts—contact discontinuities in the intracluster medium (ICM) of galaxy clusters—should be disrupted by Kelvin–Helmholtz (K-H) instabilities due to the associated shear velocity. However, many observed cold fronts appear stable. This opens the possibility of placing constraints on microphysical mechanisms that stabilize them, such as the ICM viscosity and/or magnetic fields. We performed exploratory high-resolution simulations of cold fronts arising from subsonic gas sloshing in cluster cores using the grid-based Athena MHD code, comparing the effects of isotropic Spitzer and anisotropic Braginskii viscosity (expected in a magnetized plasma). Magnetized simulations with full Braginskii viscosity or isotropic Spitzer viscosity reduced by a factor f ∼ 0.1 are both in qualitative agreement with observations in terms of suppressing K-H instabilities. The rms velocity of turbulence within the sloshing region is only modestly reduced by Braginskii viscosity. We also performed unmagnetized simulations with and without viscosity and find that magnetic fields have a substantial effect on the appearance of the cold fronts, even if the initial field is weak and the viscosity is the same. This suggests that determining the dominant suppression mechanism of a given cold front from X-ray observations (e.g., viscosity or magnetic fields) by comparison with simulations is not straightforward. Finally, we performed simulations including anisotropic thermal conduction, and find that including Braginskii viscosity in these simulations does not significantly affect the evolution of cold fronts; they are rapidly smeared out by thermal conduction, as in the inviscid case.

We present a new technique for overcoming confusion noise in deep far-infrared Herschel space telescope images making use of prior information from shorter λ < 2 μm wavelengths. For the deepest images obtained by Herschel, the flux limit due to source confusion is about a factor of three brighter than the flux limit due to instrumental noise and (smooth) sky background. We have investigated the possibility of de-confusing simulated Herschel PACS 160 μm images by using strong Bayesian priors on the positions and weak priors on the flux of sources. We find the blended sources and group them together and simultaneously fit their fluxes. We derive the posterior probability distribution function of fluxes subject to these priors through Monte Carlo Markov Chain (MCMC) sampling by fitting the image. Assuming we can predict the FIR flux of sources based on the ultraviolet–optical part of their SEDs to within an order of magnitude, the simulations show that we can obtain reliable fluxes and uncertainties at least a factor of three fainter than the confusion noise limit of 3σ_c = 2.7 mJy in our simulated PACS-160 image. This technique could in principle be used to mitigate the effects of source confusion in any situation where one has prior information of positions and plausible fluxes of blended sources. For Herschel, application of this technique will improve our ability to constrain the dust content in normal galaxies at high redshift.

The energy and time profiles of 4944 superflares from 77 G-type stars with well-defined light curve periodicities from the Kepler measurements have been analyzed in detail. The total value of the power-law index of the flare frequency distribution as a function of energy (dN/dE ∝ E^−γ) between 5 × 10³⁴ and 10³⁶ erg is on average γ = 2.04 ± 0.17, which is in agreement with previous results. The γ values of eight stars with frequent flaring activity vary between 1.59 ± 0.06 and 2.11 ± 0.19, suggesting a possible diversity of energy release effects. In general, stars with shorter rotation periods tend to have larger γ values. There is an indication that the flare energy is saturated at about 2 × 10³⁷ erg. For a few large superflares of this energy range, it is found that their temporal behaviors could be characterized by a transition from single impulsive flares to long-duration flares composed of several flares.

We present a time series of 8–13 μm spectra and photometry for SN 2014J obtained 57, 81, 108, and 137 days after the explosion using CanariCam on the Gran Telescopio Canarias. This is the first mid-IR time series ever obtained for a Type Ia supernova (SN Ia). These observations can be understood within the framework of the delayed detonation model and the production of ∼0.6 M_☉ of ⁵⁶Ni, consistent with the observed brightness, the brightness decline relation, and the γ-ray fluxes. The [Co iii] line at 11.888 μm is particularly useful for evaluating the time evolution of the photosphere and measuring the amount of ⁵⁶Ni and thus the mass of the ejecta. Late-time line profiles of SN 2014J are rather symmetric and not shifted in the rest frame. We see argon emission, which provides a unique probe of mixing in the transition layer between incomplete burning and nuclear statistical equilibrium. We may see [Fe iii] and [Ni iv] emission, both of which are observed to be substantially stronger than indicated by our models. If the latter identification is correct, then we are likely observing stable Ni, which might imply central mixing. In addition, electron capture, also required for stable Ni, requires densities larger than ∼1 × 10⁹ g cm⁻³, which are expected to be present only in white dwarfs close to the Chandrasekhar limit. This study demonstrates that mid-IR studies of SNe Ia are feasible from the ground and provide unique information, but it also indicates the need for better atomic data.

We present near-IR (NIR) and far-UV observations of the pre-transitional (gapped) disk in HD 169142 using NASA's Infrared Telescope Facility and Hubble Space Telescope. The combination of our data along with existing data sets into the broadband spectral energy distribution reveals variability of up to 45% between ∼1.5–10 μm over a maximum timescale of 10 yr. All observations known to us separate into two distinct states corresponding to a high near-IR state in the pre-2000 epoch and a low state in the post-2000 epoch, indicating activity within the ≲1 AU region of the disk. Through analysis of the Pa β and Br γ lines in our data we derive a mass accretion rate in 2013 May of $\dot{M}$ ≈ (1.5–2.7) × 10⁻⁹ M_☉ yr⁻¹. We present a theoretical modeling analysis of the disk in HD 169142 using Monte-Carlo radiative transfer simulation software to explore the conditions and perhaps signs of planetary formation in our collection of 24 yr of observations. We find that shifting the outer edge (r ≈ 0.3 AU) of the inner disk by 0.05 AU toward the star (in simulation of accretion and/or sculpting by forming planets) successfully reproduces the shift in NIR flux. We establish that the ∼40–70 AU dark ring imaged in the NIR by Quanz et al. and Momose et al. and at 7 mm by Osorio et al. may be reproduced with a 30% scaled density profile throughout the region, strengthening the link to this structure being dynamically cleared by one or more planetary mass bodies.

The gravitationally lensed quasar HE 1104–1805 has been observed at a variety of wavelengths ranging from the mid-infrared to X-ray for nearly 20 yr. We combine flux ratios from the literature, including recent Chandra data, with new observations from the SMARTS telescope and Hubble Space Telescope, and use them to investigate the spatial structure of the central regions using a Bayesian Monte Carlo analysis of the microlensing variability. The wide wavelength coverage allows us to constrain not only the accretion disk half-light radius r_1/2, but the power-law slope ξ of the size-wavelength relation r_1/2∝λ^ξ. With a logarithmic prior on the source size, the (observed-frame) R-band half-light radius log (r_1/2/cm) is $16.0^{_{+0.3}}_{^{-0.4}}$, and the slope ξ is $1.0^{_{+0.30}}_{^{-0.56}}$. We put upper limits on the source size in soft (0.4−1.2 keV) and hard (1.2−8 keV) X-ray bands, finding 95% upper limits on log (r_1/2/cm) of 15.33 in both bands. A linear prior yields somewhat larger sizes, particularly in the X-ray bands. For comparison, the gravitational radius, using a black hole mass estimated using the Hβ line, is log (r_g/cm) = 13.94. We find that the accretion disk is probably close to face-on, with cos i = 1.0 being four times more likely than cos i = 0.5. We also find probability distributions for the mean mass of the stars in the foreground lensing galaxy, the direction of the transverse peculiar velocity of the lens, and the position angle of the projected accretion disk's major axis (if not face-on).

We present resolved images of the HR 4796A debris disk using the Magellan adaptive optics system paired with Clio-2 and VisAO. We detect the disk at 0.77 μm, 0.91 μm, 0.99 μm, 2.15 μm, 3.1 μm, 3.3 μm, and 3.8 μm. We find that the deprojected center of the ring is offset from the star by 4.76 ± 1.6 AU and that the deprojected eccentricity is 0.06 ± 0.02, in general agreement with previous studies. We find that the average width of the ring is 14$^{+3}_{-2}\%$ (11.1$^{+2.4}_{-1.6}$ AU), also comparable to previous measurements. Combining our new scattered light data with archival Hubble Space Telescope images at ∼0.5–2 μm, along with previously unpublished Spitzer/MIPS thermal emission data and all other literature thermal data, we set out to constrain the chemical composition of the dust grains. After testing 19 individual root compositions and more than 8400 unique mixtures of these compositions, we find that good fits to the scattered light alone and thermal emission alone are discrepant, suggesting that caution should be exercised if fitting to only one or the other. When we fit to both data sets simultaneously, we find that silicates and organics are generally the most favored, while large abundances of water ice are usually not favored. These results suggest the HR 4796A dust grains are similar to interstellar dust and solar system comets, though improved modeling is necessary to place better constraints on the exact chemical composition of the dust.

We investigate three flares that occurred in active region, AR 11087, observed by the Dutch Open Telescope (DOT) on 2010 July 13, in a span of three hours. The first two flares have soft X-ray class B3, whereas the third flare has class C3. The third flare not only was the largest in terms of area and brightness but also showed a very faint coronal mass ejection (CME) associated with it, while the earlier two flares had no associated CME. The active region, located at 27° N, 26° E, has a small U-shaped active region filament to the south of the sunspot, and a quiescent filament is located to its west. Hα observations from DOT, as well as extreme-ultraviolet images and magnetograms from the STEREO spacecraft and Solar Dynamics Observatory, are used to study the dynamics of the active region during the three flares. Our observations imply that the first two flares are confined and that some filament material drains to the surface during these flares. At the onset of the third flare downflows are again observed within the active region, but a strong upflow is also observed at the northern end of the adjacent quiescent filament to the west. It is at the latter location that the CME originates. The temporal evolution of the flare ribbons and the dynamics of the filaments are both consistent with the idea that reconnection in a pre-existing current sheet leads to a loss of equilibrium.

NuSTAR observed G1.9+0.3, the youngest known supernova remnant in the Milky Way, for 350 ks and detected emission up to ∼30 keV. The remnant's X-ray morphology does not change significantly across the energy range from 3 to 20 keV. A combined fit between NuSTAR and Chandra shows that the spectrum steepens with energy. The spectral shape can be well fitted with synchrotron emission from a power-law electron energy distribution with an exponential cutoff with no additional features. It can also be described by a purely phenomenological model such as a broken power law or a power law with an exponential cutoff, though these descriptions lack physical motivation. Using a fixed radio flux at 1 GHz of 1.17 Jy for the synchrotron model, we get a column density of N_H = (7.23 ± 0.07) × 10²² cm⁻², a spectral index of α = 0.633 ± 0.003, and a roll-off frequency of ν_rolloff = (3.07 ± 0.18) × 10¹⁷ Hz. This can be explained by particle acceleration, to a maximum energy set by the finite remnant age, in a magnetic field of about 10 μG, for which our roll-off implies a maximum energy of about 100 TeV for both electrons and ions. Much higher magnetic-field strengths would produce an electron spectrum that was cut off by radiative losses, giving a much higher roll-off frequency that is independent of magnetic-field strength. In this case, ions could be accelerated to much higher energies. A search for ⁴⁴Ti emission in the 67.9 keV line results in an upper limit of 1.5 × 10⁻⁵ photons cm⁻² s⁻¹ assuming a line width of 4.0 keV (1 sigma).

We present a new method for inferring the metallicity (Z) and ionization parameter (q) of H ii regions and star-forming galaxies using strong nebular emission lines (SELs). We use Bayesian inference to derive the joint and marginalized posterior probability density functions for Z and q given a set of observed line fluxes and an input photoionization model. Our approach allows the use of arbitrary sets of SELs and the inclusion of flux upper limits. The method provides a self-consistent way of determining the physical conditions of ionized nebulae that is not tied to the arbitrary choice of a particular SEL diagnostic and uses all the available information. Unlike theoretically calibrated SEL diagnostics, the method is flexible and not tied to a particular photoionization model. We describe our algorithm, validate it against other methods, and present a tool that implements it called IZI. Using a sample of nearby extragalactic H ii regions, we assess the performance of commonly used SEL abundance diagnostics. We also use a sample of 22 local H ii regions having both direct and recombination line (RL) oxygen abundance measurements in the literature to study discrepancies in the abundance scale between different methods. We find that oxygen abundances derived through Bayesian inference using currently available photoionization models in the literature can be in good (∼30%) agreement with RL abundances, although some models perform significantly better than others. We also confirm that abundances measured using the direct method are typically ∼0.2 dex lower than both RL and photoionization-model-based abundances.

We present a fast (≪1 s per profile) inversion code for solar Ca ii lines. The code uses an archive of spectra that are synthesized prior to the inversion under the assumption of local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE). We show that it can be successfully applied to spectrograph data or more sparsely sampled spectra from two-dimensional spectrometers. From a comparison to a non-LTE inversion of the same set of spectra, we derive a first-order non-LTE correction to the temperature stratifications derived in the LTE approach. The correction factor is close to unity up to log τ ∼ −3 and increases to values of 2.5 and 4 at log τ = −6 in the quiet Sun and the umbra, respectively.

In the first paper of this series, a comprehensive approach has been provided for the study of S-type and P-type habitable regions in stellar binary systems, which was, however, restricted to circular orbits of the stellar components. Fortunately, a modest modification of the method also allows for the consideration of elliptical orbits, which of course entails a much broader range of applicability. This augmented method is presented here, and numerous applications are conveyed. In alignment with Paper I, the selected approach considers a variety of aspects, which comprise the consideration of a joint constraint including orbital stability and a habitable region for a possible system planet through the stellar radiative energy fluxes ("radiative habitable zone"; RHZ). The devised method is based on a combined formalism for the assessment of both S-type and P-type habitability; in particular, mathematical criteria are deduced for which kinds of systems S-type and P-type habitable zones are realized. If the RHZs are truncated by the additional constraint of orbital stability, the notation of ST-type and PT-type habitability applies. In comparison to the circular case, it is found that in systems of higher eccentricity, the range of the RHZs is significantly reduced. Moreover, for a considerable number of models, the orbital stability constraint also reduces the range of S-type and P-type habitability. Nonetheless, S-, P-, ST-, and PT-type habitability is identified for a considerable set of system parameters. The method as presented is utilized for BinHab, an online code available at The University of Texas at Arlington.

Studies of interstellar chemistry have grown in number and complexity by both observations and laboratory measurements, and nitrogen-containing aromatics have been implicated as important interstellar molecules. In this paper, the gas-phase collision induced dissociation (CID) processes of protonated pyridazine (1,2-diazine), pyrimidine (1,3-diazine), and pyrazine (1,4-diazine) cations (C₄H₅N₂⁺) are investigated in detail both experimentally and theoretically. The major neutral loss for all three CID processes is HCN, leading to the formation of C₃H₄N⁺ isomers; our density functional theory (DFT) calculations support and elucidate our experimental results. The formation of C₃H₄N⁺ isomers from the reaction of abundant interstellar acrylonitrile (CH₂CHCN) and H⁺is also studied employing DFT calculations. Our results lead to a novel mechanism for interstellar protonated diazine formation from the consecutive reactions of CH₂CHCN+ H⁺ + HCN. Moreover, our results motivate the continuing search for interstellar C₃H₄N⁺ isomers as well as polycyclic aromatic N-containing hydrocarbons (PANHs).

Although supermassive black holes (SMBHs) correlate well with their host galaxies, there is an emerging view that outliers exist. Henize 2–10, NGC 4889, and NGC 1277 are examples of SMBHs at least an order of magnitude more massive than their host galaxy suggests. The dynamical effects of such ultramassive central black holes is unclear. Here, we perform direct N-body simulations of mergers of galactic nuclei where one black hole is ultramassive to study the evolution of the remnant and the black hole dynamics in this extreme regime. We find that the merger remnant is axisymmetric near the center, while near the large SMBH influence radius, the galaxy is triaxial. The SMBH separation shrinks rapidly due to dynamical friction, and quickly forms a binary black hole; if we scale our model to the most massive estimate for the NGC 1277 black hole, for example, the timescale for the SMBH separation to shrink from nearly a kiloparsec to less than a parsec is roughly 10 Myr. By the time the SMBHs form a hard binary, gravitational wave emission dominates, and the black holes coalesce in a mere few Myr. Curiously, these extremely massive binaries appear to nearly bypass the three-body scattering evolutionary phase. Our study suggests that in this extreme case, SMBH coalescence is governed by dynamical friction followed nearly directly by gravitational wave emission, resulting in a rapid and efficient SMBH coalescence timescale. We discuss the implications for gravitational wave event rates and hypervelocity star production.

We investigate the young stellar population in the Vela Molecular Ridge, Cloud-D, a star-forming region observed by both the Spitzer/NASA and Herschel/ESA space telescopes. The point-source, band-merged, Spitzer-IRAC catalog complemented with MIPS photometry previously obtained is used to search for candidate young stellar objects (YSOs), also including sources detected in less than four IRAC bands. Bona fide YSOs are selected by using appropriate color–color and color–magnitude criteria aimed at excluding both Galactic and extragalactic contaminants. The derived star formation rate and efficiency are compared with the same quantities characterizing other star-forming clouds. Additional photometric data, spanning from the near-IR to the submillimeter, are used to evaluate both bolometric luminosity and temperature for 33 YSOs located in a region of the cloud observed by both Spitzer and Herschel. The luminosity–temperature diagram suggests that some of these sources are representative of Class 0 objects with bolometric temperatures below 70 K and luminosities of the order of the solar luminosity. Far-IR observations from the Herschel/Hi-GAL key project for a survey of the Galactic plane are also used to obtain a band-merged photometric catalog of Herschel sources intended to independently search for protostars. We find 122 Herschel cores located on the molecular cloud, 30 of which are protostellar and 92 of which are starless. The global protostellar luminosity function is obtained by merging the Spitzer and Herschel protostars. Considering that 10 protostars are found in both the Spitzer and Herschel lists, it follows that in the investigated region we find 53 protostars and that the Spitzer-selected protostars account for approximately two-thirds of the total.

Precursors and postcursors (PPCs) are rare emission components, which appear beyond the main pulse emission, in some cases far away from it, and are detected in a handful of pulsar. In this paper we attempt to characterize the PPC emission in relation to the pulsar main pulse geometry. In our analysis we find that PPC components have properties very different from that of outer conal emission. The separation of the PPC components from the main pulse center remains constant with frequency. In addition the beam opening angles corresponding to the separation of PPC components from the pulsar center are much larger than the largest encountered in conal emission. Pulsar radio emission is believed to originate within the magnetic polar flux tubes due to the growth of instabilities in the outflowing relativistic plasma. Observationally, there is strong evidence that the main pulse emission originates at altitudes of about 50 neutron star radii for a canonical pulsar. Currently, the most plausible radio emission model that can explain main pulse emission is the coherent curvature radiation mechanism, wherein relativistic charged solitons are formed in a non-stationary electron–positron-pair plasma. The wider beam opening angles of PPC require the emission to emanate from larger altitudes as compared to the main pulse, if both these components originate by the same emission mechanism. We explore this possibility and find that this emission mechanism is probably inapplicable at the height of the PPC emission. We propose that the PPC emission represents a new type of radiation from pulsars with a mechanism different from that of the main pulse.

We investigate seven eruptive plasma observations by Hinode/XRT. Their corresponding EUV and/or white light coronal mass ejection features are visible in some events. Five events are observed in several passbands in X-rays, which allows for the determination of the eruptive plasma temperature using a filter ratio method. We find that the isothermal temperatures vary from 1.6 to 10 MK. These temperatures are an average weighted toward higher temperature plasma. We determine the mass constraints of eruptive plasmas by assuming simplified geometrical structures of the plasma with isothermal plasma temperatures. This method provides an upper limit to the masses of the observed eruptive plasmas in X-ray passbands since any clumping causes the overestimation of the mass. For the other two events, we assume the temperatures are at the maximum temperature of the X-ray Telescope (XRT) temperature response function, which gives a lower limit of the masses. We find that the masses in XRT, ∼3 × 10¹³–5 × 10¹⁴ g, are smaller in their upper limit than the total masses obtained by LASCO, ∼1 × 10¹⁵ g. In addition, we estimate the radiative loss, thermal conduction, thermal, and kinetic energies of the eruptive plasma in X-rays. For four events, we find that the thermal conduction timescales are much shorter than the duration of eruption. This result implies that additional heating during the eruption may be required to explain the plasma observations in X-rays for the four events.

We analyze optical spectra of a two-ribbon, long-duration C1.1 flare that occurred on 2011 August 18 within AR 11271 (SOL2011-08-18T15:15). The impulsive phase of the flare was observed with a comprehensive set of space-borne and ground-based instruments, which provide a range of unique diagnostics of the lower flaring atmosphere. Here we report the detection of enhanced continuum emission, observed in low-resolution spectra from 3600 Å to 4550 Å acquired with the Horizontal Spectrograph at the Dunn Solar Telescope. A small, ⩽05 (10¹⁵ cm²) penumbral/umbral kernel brightens repeatedly in the optical continuum and chromospheric emission lines, similar to the temporal characteristics of the hard X-ray variation as detected by the Gamma-ray Burst Monitor on the Fermi spacecraft. Radiative-hydrodynamic flare models that employ a nonthermal electron beam energy flux high enough to produce the optical contrast in our flare spectra would predict a large Balmer jump in emission, indicative of hydrogen recombination radiation from the upper flare chromosphere. However, we find no evidence of such a Balmer jump in the bluemost spectral region of the continuum excess. Just redward of the expected Balmer jump, we find evidence of a "blue continuum bump" in the excess emission which may be indicative of the merging of the higher order Balmer lines. The large number of observational constraints provides a springboard for modeling the blue/optical emission for this particular flare with radiative-hydrodynamic codes, which are necessary to understand the opacity effects for the continuum and emission line radiation at these wavelengths.

The nature of quasi-periodic pulsations (QPPs) in solar and stellar flares remains debated. Recent work has shown that power-law-like Fourier power spectra are an intrinsic property of solar and stellar flare signals, a property that many previous studies of this phenomenon have not accounted for. Hence a re-evaluation of the existing interpretations and assumptions regarding QPPs is needed. We adopt a Bayesian method for investigating this phenomenon, fully considering the Fourier power-law properties of flare signals. Using data from the PROBA2/Large Yield Radiometer, Fermi/Gamma-ray Burst Monitor, Nobeyama Radioheliograph, and Yohkoh/HXT instruments, we study a selection of flares from the literature identified as QPP events. Additionally, we examine optical data from a recent stellar flare that appears to exhibit oscillatory properties. We find that, for all but one event tested, an explicit oscillation is not required to explain the observations. Instead, the flare signals are adequately described as a manifestation of a power law in the Fourier power spectrum. However, for the flare of 1998 May 8, strong evidence for an explicit oscillation with P ≈ 14–16 s is found in the 17 GHz radio data and the 13–23 keV Yohkoh/HXT data. We conclude that, most likely, many previously analyzed events in the literature may be similarly described by power laws in the flare Fourier power spectrum, without invoking a narrowband, oscillatory component. Hence the prevalence of oscillatory signatures in solar and stellar flares may be less than previously believed. The physical mechanism behind the appearance of the observed power laws is discussed.

We examine the development of the active asteroid 311P/PANSTARRS (formerly, 2013 P5) in the period from 2013 September to 2014 February using high resolution images from the Hubble Space Telescope. This multi-tailed object is characterized by a single, reddish nucleus of absolute magnitude H ⩾ 18.98 ± 0.10, corresponding to an equal-area sphere of radius ⩽200 ± 20 m (for assumed geometric albedo 0.29 ± 0.09). We set an upper limit to the radii of possible companion nuclei at ∼10 m. The nucleus ejected debris in nine discrete episodes, spread irregularly over a nine month interval, each time forming a distinct tail. Particles in the tails range from about 10 μm to at least 80 mm in radius, and were ejected at speeds <1 m s⁻¹. The ratio of the total ejected dust mass to the nucleus mass is ∼3×10⁻⁵, corresponding to a global surface layer ∼2 mm thick, or to a deeper layer covering a smaller fraction of the surface. The observations are incompatible with an origin of the activity by impact or by the sublimation of entrapped ice. This object appears to be shedding its regolith by rotational (presumably YORP-driven) instability. Long-term fading of the photometry (months) is attributed to gradual dissipation of near-nucleus dust. Photometric variations on short timescales (<0.7 hr) are probably caused by fast rotation of the nucleus. However, because of limited time coverage and dilution of the nucleus signal by near-nucleus dust, we have not been able to determine the rotation period.

We report on early results from a pilot program searching for metal-poor stars with LAMOST and follow-up high-resolution observation acquired with the MIKE spectrograph attached to the Magellan II telescope. We performed detailed abundance analysis for eight objects with iron abundances [Fe/H] < -2.0, including five extremely metal-poor (EMP; [Fe/H] < -3.0) stars with two having [Fe/H] < -3.5. Among these objects, three are newly discovered EMP stars, one of which is confirmed for the first time with high-resolution spectral observations. Three program stars are regarded as carbon-enhanced metal-poor (CEMP) stars, including two stars with no enhancement in their neutron-capture elements, which thus possibly belong to the class of CEMP-no stars; one of these objects also exhibits significant enhancement in nitrogen, and is thus a potential carbon and nitrogen-enhanced metal-poor star. The [X/Fe] ratios of the sample stars generally agree with those reported in the literature for other metal-poor stars in the same [Fe/H] range. We also compared the abundance patterns of individual program stars with the average abundance pattern of metal-poor stars and find only one chemically peculiar object with abundances of at least two elements (other than C and N) showing deviations larger than 0.5 dex. The distribution of [Sr/Ba] versus [Ba/H] agrees that an additional nucleosynthesis mechanism is needed aside from a single r-process. Two program stars with extremely low abundances of Sr and Ba support the prospect that both main and weak r-processes may have operated during the early phase of Galactic chemical evolution. The distribution of [C/N] shows that there are two groups of carbon-normal giants with different degrees of mixing. However, it is difficult to explain the observed behavior of the [C/N] of the nitrogen-enhanced unevolved stars based on current data.

We present new, deep near-infrared SINFONI @ VLT integral field spectroscopy of the gas cloud G2 in the Galactic Center, from late 2013 August, 2014 April, and 2014 July. G2 is visible in recombination line emission. The spatially resolved kinematic data track the ongoing tidal disruption. The cloud reached minimum distance to the MBH of 1950 Schwarzschild radii. As expected for an observation near the pericenter passage, roughly half of the gas in 2014 is found at the redshifted, pre-pericenter side of the orbit, while the other half is at the post-pericenter, blueshifted side. We also present an orbital solution for the gas cloud G1, which was discovered a decade ago in L'-band images when it was spatially almost coincident with Sgr A*. The orientation of the G1 orbit in the three angles is almost identical to that of G2, but it has a lower eccentricity and smaller semi-major axis. We show that the observed astrometric positions and radial velocities of G1 are compatible with the G2 orbit, assuming that (1) G1 was originally on the G2 orbit preceding G2 by 13 yr, and (2) a simple drag force acted on it during pericenter passage. Taken together with the previously described tail of G2, which we detect in recombination line emission and thermal broadband emission, we propose that G2 may be a bright knot in a much more extensive gas streamer. This matches purely gaseous models for G2, such as a stellar wind clump or the tidal debris from a partial disruption of a star.

The Kepler spacecraft has discovered a large number of planets with up to one-year periods and down to terrestrial sizes. While the majority of the target stars are main-sequence dwarfs of spectral type F, G, and K, Kepler covers stars with effective temperatures as low as 2500 K, which corresponds to M stars. These cooler stars allow characterization of small planets near the habitable zone, yet it is not clear if this population is representative of that around FGK stars. In this paper, we calculate the occurrence of planets around stars of different spectral types as a function of planet radius and distance from the star and show that they are significantly different from each other. We further identify two trends. First, the occurrence of Earth- to Neptune-sized planets (1–4 R_⊕) is successively higher toward later spectral types at all orbital periods probed by Kepler; planets around M stars occur twice as frequently as around G stars, and thrice as frequently as around F stars. Second, a drop in planet occurrence is evident at all spectral types inward of a ∼10 day orbital period, with a plateau further out. By assigning to each spectral type a median stellar mass, we show that the distance from the star where this drop occurs is stellar mass dependent, and scales with semi-major axis as the cube root of stellar mass. By comparing different mechanisms of planet formation, trapping, and destruction, we find that this scaling best matches the location of the pre-main-sequence co-rotation radius, indicating efficient trapping of migrating planets or planetary building blocks close to the star. These results demonstrate the stellar-mass dependence of the planet population, both in terms of occurrence rate and of orbital distribution. The prominent stellar-mass dependence of the inner boundary of the planet population shows that the formation or migration of planets is sensitive to the stellar parameters.

The Date Compensated Discrete Fourier Transform and CLEANest algorithm are used to study the temporal variations of the solar radius observed at Rio de Janeiro Observatory from 1998 March 2 to 2009 November 6. The CLEANest spectra show several significant periodicities around 400, 312, 93.5, 86.2, 79.4, 70.9, 53.2, and 26.3 days. Then, combining the data on the daily solar radius measured at Calern Observatory and Rio de Janeiro Observatory and the corresponding daily sunspot areas, we study the short-term periodicity of the solar radius and the role of magnetic field in the variation of the solar radius. The rotation period of the daily solar radius is determined to be statistically significant. Moreover, its temporal evolution is anti-phase with that of sunspot activity, and it is found anti-phase with solar activity. Generally, the stronger solar activity is, the more obvious is the anti-phase relation of radius with solar activity. This indicates that strong magnetic fields have a greater inhibitive effect than weak magnetic fields on the variation of the radius.

As each solar cycle progresses, remnant magnetic flux from active regions (ARs) migrates poleward to cancel the old-cycle polar field. We describe this polarity reversal process during Cycle 24 using four years (2010.33–2014.33) of line-of-sight magnetic field measurements from the Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager. The total flux associated with ARs reached maximum in the north in 2011, more than two years earlier than the south; the maximum is significantly weaker than Cycle 23. The process of polar field reversal is relatively slow, north–south asymmetric, and episodic. We estimate that the global axial dipole changed sign in 2013 October; the northern and southern polar fields (mean above 60° latitude) reversed in 2012 November and 2014 March, respectively, about 16 months apart. Notably, the poleward surges of flux in each hemisphere alternated in polarity, giving rise to multiple reversals in the north. We show that the surges of the trailing sunspot polarity tend to correspond to normal mean AR tilt, higher total AR flux, or slower mid-latitude near-surface meridional flow, while exceptions occur during low magnetic activity. In particular, the AR flux and the mid-latitude poleward flow speed exhibit a clear anti-correlation. We discuss how these features can be explained in a surface flux transport process that includes a field-dependent converging flow toward the ARs, a characteristic that may contribute to solar cycle variability.

We examine the connection between the observed star-forming sequence (SFR ∝ M^α) and the observed evolution of the stellar mass function in the range 0.2 < z < 2.5. We find that the star-forming sequence cannot have a slope α ≲ 0.9 at all masses and redshifts because this would result in a much higher number density at 10 < log (M/M_☉) < 11 by z = 1 than is observed. We show that a transition in the slope of the star-forming sequence, such that α = 1 at log (M/M_☉) < 10.5 and α = 0.7–0.13z (Whitaker et al.) at log (M/M_☉) > 10.5, greatly improves agreement with the evolution of the stellar mass function. We then derive a star-forming sequence that reproduces the evolution of the mass function by design. This star-forming sequence is also well described by a broken power law, with a shallow slope at high masses and a steep slope at low masses. At z = 2, it is offset by ∼0.3 dex from the observed star-forming sequence, consistent with the mild disagreement between the cosmic star formation rate (SFR) and recent observations of the growth of the stellar mass density. It is unclear whether this problem stems from errors in stellar mass estimates, errors in SFRs, or other effects. We show that a mass-dependent slope is also seen in other self-consistent models of galaxy evolution, including semianalytical, hydrodynamical, and abundance-matching models. As part of the analysis, we demonstrate that neither mergers nor hidden low-mass quiescent galaxies are likely to reconcile the evolution of the mass function and the star-forming sequence. These results are supported by observations from Whitaker et al.

Stellar wind is thought to be the main process responsible for the spin down of main-sequence stars. The extraction of angular momentum by a magnetized wind has been studied for decades, leading to several formulations for the resulting torque. However, previous studies generally consider simple dipole or split monopole stellar magnetic topologies. Here we consider, in addition to a dipolar stellar magnetic field, both quadrupolar and octupolar configurations, while also varying the rotation rate and the magnetic field strength. Sixty simulations made with a 2.5D cylindrical and axisymmetric set-up, and computed with the PLUTO code, were used to find torque formulations for each topology. We further succeed to give a unique law that fits the data for every topology by formulating the torque in terms of the amount of open magnetic flux in the wind. We also show that our formulation can be applied to even more realistic magnetic topologies, with examples of the Sun in its minimum and maximum phases as observed at the Wilcox Solar Observatory, and of a young K-star (TYC-0486-4943-1) whose topology has been obtained by Zeeman–Doppler Imaging.

In this work, we extend our dynamical study of ultra compact X-ray binaries (UCXB) 4U 1820-30 from Prodan & Murray to three more UCXBs in globular clusters: 4U 1850-087, 4U 0513-40, and M15 X-2. These three UCXBs have orbital periods ≲ 20 minutes. Two of them, 4U 1850-087 and 4U 0513-40, have suspected luminosity variations of the order of ∼1 yr. There is insufficient observational data to make any statements regarding the long periodicity in the light curve of M15 X-2 at this point. The properties of these three systems are quite similar to 4U 1820-30, which prompt us to model their dynamics in the same manner. As in the case of 4U 1820-30, we interpret the suspected long periods as the period of small oscillations around a stable fixed point in the Kozai resonance. We provide a lower limit on the tidal dissipation factor Q, which is in agreement with results obtained for the case of 4U 1820-30.

PSR J1906+0746 is a young pulsar in the relativistic binary with the second-shortest known orbital period, of 3.98 hr. We here present a timing study based on five years of observations, conducted with the five largest radio telescopes in the world, aimed at determining the companion nature. Through the measurement of three post-Keplerian orbital parameters, we find the pulsar mass to be 1.291(11) M_☉, and the companion mass 1.322(11) M_☉, respectively. These masses fit well in the observed collection of double neutron stars (DNSs), but are also compatible with other systems where a young pulsar such as J1906+0746 is orbited by a white dwarf (WD). Neither radio pulsations nor dispersion-inducing outflows that could have further established the companion nature were detected. We derive an H i-absorption distance, which indicates that an optical confirmation of a WD companion is very challenging. The pulsar is fading fast due to geodetic precession, limiting future timing improvements. We conclude that the young pulsar J1906+0746 is likely part of a DNS, or is otherwise orbited by an older WD, in an exotic system formed through two stages of mass transfer.

The ARGO-YBJ air shower detector monitored the Crab Nebula gamma-ray emission from 2007 November to 2013 February. The integrated signal, consisting of ∼3.3 × 10⁵ events, reached the statistical significance of 21.1 standard deviations. The obtained energy spectrum in the energy range 0.3–20 TeV can be described by a power law function dN/dE = I₀ (E/2 TeV)^−α, with a flux normalization I₀ = (5.2 ± 0.2) × 10⁻¹² photons cm⁻² s⁻¹ TeV⁻¹ and α = 2.63 ± 0.05, corresponding to an integrated flux above 1 TeV of 1.97 × 10⁻¹¹ photons cm⁻² s⁻¹. The systematic error is estimated to be less than 30% for the flux normalization and 0.06 for the spectral index. Assuming a power law spectrum with an exponential cutoff dN/dE = I₀ (E/2 TeV)^−α exp  (−E/E_cut), the lower limit of the cutoff energy E_cut is 12 TeV, at 90% confidence level. Our extended data set allows the study of the TeV emission over long timescales. Over five years, the light curve of the Crab Nebula in 200-day bins is compatible with a steady emission with a probability of 7.3 × 10⁻². A correlated analysis with Fermi-LAT data over ∼4.5 yr using the light curves of the two experiments gives a Pearson correlation coefficient r = 0.56 ± 0.22. Concerning flux variations on timescales of days, a "blind" search for flares with a duration of 1–15 days gives no excess with a significance higher than four standard deviations. The average rate measured by ARGO-YBJ during the three most powerful flares detected by Fermi-LAT is 205 ± 91 photons day⁻¹, consistent with the average value of 137 ± 10 day⁻¹.

We measure the proper motion of the pulsar PSR J1745-2900 relative to the Galactic center massive black hole, Sgr A*, using the Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA). The pulsar has a transverse velocity of 236 ± 11 km s⁻¹ at position angle 22 ± 2 deg east of north at a projected separation of 0.097 pc from Sgr A*. Given the unknown radial velocity, this transverse velocity measurement does not conclusively prove that the pulsar is bound to Sgr A*; however, the probability of chance alignment is very small. We do show that the velocity and position are consistent with a bound orbit originating in the clockwise disk of massive stars orbiting Sgr A* and a natal velocity kick of ≲ 500 km s⁻¹. An origin among the isotropic stellar cluster is possible but less probable. If the pulsar remains radio-bright, multiyear astrometry of PSR J1745-2900 can detect its acceleration and determine the full three-dimensional orbit. We also demonstrate that PSR J1745-2900 exhibits the same angular broadening as Sgr A* over a wavelength range of 3.6 cm to 0.7 cm, further confirming that the two sources share the same interstellar scattering properties. Finally, we place the first limits on the presence of a wavelength-dependent shift in the position of Sgr A*, i.e., the core shift, one of the expected properties of optically thick jet emission. Our results for PSR J1745-2900 support the hypothesis that Galactic center pulsars will originate from the stellar disk and deepen the mystery regarding the small number of detected Galactic center pulsars.

The recent discovery of the universal I-Love-Q relations connecting the moment of inertia, tidal deformability, and the spin-induced quadrupole moment of compact stars is intriguing and totally unexpected. In this paper, we provide numerical evidence showing that the universality can be attributed to the incompressible limit of the I-Love-Q relations. The fact that modern equations of state are stiff, with an effective adiabatic index larger than about two, above the nuclear density range is the key to establishing the universality for neutron stars and quark stars with typical compactness from about 0.1 to 0.3. On the other hand, the I-Love-Q relations of low-mass neutron stars near the minimum mass limit depend more sensitively on the underlying equation of state because these stars are composed mainly of softer matter at low densities. However, the I-Love-Q relations for low-mass quark stars can still be represented accurately by the incompressible limit. We also study the I-Love relation connecting the moment of inertia and tidal deformability analytically in Newtonian gravity and show why the I-Love-Q relation is weakly dependent on the underlying equation of state and can be attributed to its incompressible limit.

A fundamental challenge for wide-field imaging surveys is obtaining follow-up spectroscopic observations: there are >10⁹ photometrically cataloged sources, yet modern spectroscopic surveys are limited to ∼few× 10⁶ targets. As we approach the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope era, new algorithmic solutions are required to cope with the data deluge. Here we report the development of a machine-learning framework capable of inferring fundamental stellar parameters (T_eff, log  g, and [Fe/H]) using photometric-brightness variations and color alone. A training set is constructed from a systematic spectroscopic survey of variables with Hectospec/Multi-Mirror Telescope. In sum, the training set includes ∼9000 spectra, for which stellar parameters are measured using the SEGUE Stellar Parameters Pipeline (SSPP). We employed the random forest algorithm to perform a non-parametric regression that predicts T_eff, log  g, and [Fe/H] from photometric time-domain observations. Our final optimized model produces a cross-validated rms error (RMSE) of 165 K, 0.39 dex, and 0.33 dex for T_eff, log  g, and [Fe/H], respectively. Examining the subset of sources for which the SSPP measurements are most reliable, the RMSE reduces to 125 K, 0.37 dex, and 0.27 dex, respectively, comparable to what is achievable via low-resolution spectroscopy. For variable stars this represents a ≈12%–20% improvement in RMSE relative to models trained with single-epoch photometric colors. As an application of our method, we estimate stellar parameters for ∼54,000 known variables. We argue that this method may convert photometric time-domain surveys into pseudo-spectrographic engines, enabling the construction of extremely detailed maps of the Milky Way, its structure, and history.

We present an analysis of the gravitational microlensing event OGLE-2013-BLG-0102. The light curve of the event is characterized by a strong short-term anomaly superposed on a smoothly varying lensing curve with a moderate magnification A_max ∼ 1.5. It is found that the event was produced by a binary lens with a mass ratio between the components of q = 0.13 and the anomaly was caused by the passage of the source trajectory over a caustic located away from the barycenter of the binary. Based on the analysis of the effects on the light curve due to the finite size of the source and the parallactic motion of the Earth, we determine the physical parameters of the lens system. The measured masses of the lens components are M₁ = 0.096 ± 0.013 M_☉ and M₂ = 0.012 ± 0.002 M_☉, which correspond to near the hydrogen-burning and deuterium-burning mass limits, respectively. The distance to the lens is 3.04 ± 0.31 kpc and the projected separation between the lens components is 0.80 ± 0.08 AU.

We present the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) continuum observations at a wavelength of 1.25 mm of the debris disk surrounding the ∼100 Myr old solar analog HD 107146. The continuum emission extends from about 30 to 150 AU from the central star with a decrease in the surface brightness at intermediate radii. We analyze the ALMA interferometric visibilities using debris disk models with radial profiles for the dust surface density parameterized as (1) a single power law, (2) a single power law with a gap, and (3) a double power law. We find that models with a gap of radial width ∼8 AU at a distance of ∼80 AU from the central star, as well as double power-law models with a dip in the dust surface density at ∼70 AU provide significantly better fits to the ALMA data than single power-law models. We discuss possible scenarios for the origin of the HD 107146 debris disk using models of planetesimal belts in which the formation of Pluto-sized objects trigger disruptive collisions of large bodies, as well as models that consider the interaction of a planetary system with a planetesimal belt and spatial variation of the dust opacity across the disk. If future observations with higher angular resolution and sensitivity confirm the fully depleted gap structure discussed here, a planet with a mass of approximately a few Earth masses in a nearly circular orbit at ∼80 AU from the central star would be a possible explanation for the presence of the gap.

Since the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) mission, it has become clear that dust in circumstellar disks and outflows consists partly of crystalline silicates of pyroxene and olivine type. An exact mineralogical analysis of the dust infrared emission spectra relies on laboratory spectra, which, however, have been mostly measured at room temperature so far. Given that infrared spectral features depend on the thermal excitation of the crystal's vibrational modes, laboratory spectra measured at various (low and high) temperatures, corresponding to the thermal conditions at different distances from the star, can improve the accuracy of such analyses considerably. We have measured the complex refractive index in a temperature range of 10–973 K for one mineral of each of those types of silicate, i.e., for an olivine and an enstatite of typical (terrestrial) composition. Thus, our data extend the temperature range of previous data to higher values and the compositional range to higher iron contents. We analyze the temperature dependence of oscillator frequencies and damping parameters governing the spectral characteristics of the bands and calculate absorption cross-sectional spectra that can be compared with astronomical emission spectra. We demonstrate the usefulness of our new data by comparing spectra calculated for a 100 K dust temperature with the ISO SWS spectrum of IRAS 09425–6040.

We study the degree of angular substructure in the stellar position distribution of young members of Galactic star-forming regions, looking for correlations with distance from cluster center, surface number density of stars, and local dynamical age. To this end we adopt the catalog of members in 18 young (∼1–3 Myr) clusters from the Massive Young Star-Forming Complex Study in Infrared and X-ray Survey and the statistical analysis of the angular dispersion parameter, δ_{ADP, N}. We find statistically significant correlation between δ_{ADP, N} and physical projected distance from the center of the clusters, with the centers appearing smoother than the outskirts, consistent with more rapid dynamical processing on local dynamical, free-fall or orbital timescales. Similarly, smoother distributions are seen in regions of higher surface density, or older dynamical ages. These results indicate that dynamical processing that erases substructure is already well-advanced in young, sometimes still-forming, clusters. Such observations of the dissipation of substructure have the potential to constrain theoretical models of the dynamical evolution of young and forming clusters.

The binary brown dwarf WISE J104915.57−531906.1 (also Luhman 16AB), composed of a late-L and early-T dwarf, is a prototypical L/T transition flux reversal binary located at a distance of only 2 pc. Luhman 16B is a known variable whose light curves evolve rapidly. We present a spatially resolved spectroscopic time-series of Luhman 16A and B covering 6.5 hr using the Hubble Space Telescope/WFC3 at 1.1–1.66 μm. The small, count-dependent variability of Luhman 16A at the beginning of the observations likely stems from instrumental systematics; Luhman 16A appears non-variable above ≈0.4%. Its spectrum is well fit by a single cloud layer with intermediate cloud thickness (f_sed = 2, T_eff = 1200 K). Luhman 16B varies at all wavelengths with peak-to-valley amplitudes of 7%–11%. The amplitude and light curve shape changes over only one rotation period. The lowest relative amplitude is found in the deep water absorption band at 1.4 μm, otherwise it mostly decreases gradually from the blue to the red edge of the spectrum. This is very similar to the other two known highly variable early-T dwarfs. A two-component cloud model accounts for most of the variability, although small deviations are seen in the water absorption band. We fit the mean spectrum and relative amplitudes with a linear combination of two models of a warm, thinner cloud (T_eff = 1300 K, f_sed = 3) and a cooler, thicker cloud (T_eff = 1000–1100 K, f_sed = 1), assuming out-of-equilibrium atmospheric chemistry. A model with parameters as for Luhman 16A except for the addition of cloud holes cannot reproduce the variability of Luhman 16B, indicating more complex cloud evolution through the L/T transition. The projected separation of the binary has decreased by ≈03 in eight months.

We present Combined Array for Research in Millimeter-wave Astronomy 2.9 mm dust continuum emission observations of a sample of 14 Herschel-detected Class 0 protostars in the Orion A and B molecular clouds, drawn from the PACS Bright Red Sources (PBRS) sample. These objects are characterized by very red 24–70 μm colors and prominent submillimeter emission, suggesting that they are very young Class 0 protostars embedded in dense envelopes. We detect all of the PBRS in 2.9 mm continuum emission and emission from four protostars and one starless core in the fields toward the PBRS; we also report one new PBRS source. The ratio of 2.9 mm luminosity to bolometric luminosity is higher by a factor of ∼5 on average, compared to other well-studied protostars in the Perseus and Ophiuchus clouds. The 2.9 mm visibility amplitudes for 6 of the 14 PBRS are very flat as a function of uv distance, with more than 50% of the source emission arising from radii <1500 AU. These flat visibility amplitudes are most consistent with spherically symmetric envelope density profiles with ρ ∝ R^−2.5. Alternatively, there could be a massive unresolved structure like a disk or a high-density inner envelope departing from a smooth power law. The large amount of mass on scales <1500 AU (implying high average central densities) leads us to suggest that that the PBRS with flat visibility amplitude profiles are the youngest PBRS and may be undergoing a brief phase of high mass infall/accretion and are possibly among the youngest Class 0 protostars. The PBRS with more rapidly declining visibility amplitudes still have large envelope masses, but could be slightly more evolved.

We present measurements of internal proper motions at more than 500 positions of NGC 2392, the Eskimo Nebula, based on images acquired with WFPC2 on board the Hubble Space Telescope at two epochs separated by 7.695 yr. Comparisons of the two observations clearly show the expansion of the nebula. We measured the amplitude and direction of the motion of local structures in the nebula by determining their relative shift during that interval. In order to assess the potential uncertainties in the determination of proper motions in this object, in general, the measurements were performed using two different methods, used previously in the literature. We compare the results from the two methods, and to perform the scientific analysis of the results we choose one, the cross-correlation method, because it is more reliable. We go on to perform a "criss-cross" mapping analysis on the proper motion vectors, which helps in the interpretation of the velocity pattern. By combining our results of the proper motions with radial velocity measurements obtained from high resolution spectroscopic observations, and employing an existing 3D model, we estimate the distance to the nebula to be 1.3 kpc.

We approach the complicated phenomena of gas–dust interactions in a cometary ionosphere, focusing in particular on the possibility of significant depletion in electron number density due to grain charging. Our one-dimensional ionospheric model, accounting for grain charging processes, is applied to the subsolar direction and the diamagnetic cavity of 67P/Churyuomov-Gerasimenko, the target comet for the ESA Rosetta mission, at perihelion (∼1.25–1.30 AU). We argue on the one hand that grains with radii >100 nm are unlikely to significantly affect the overall ionospheric particle balance within this environment, at least for cometocentric distances >10 km. On the other hand, if nanograins with radii in the 1–3 nm range are ejected to the coma at a level of ∼1% with respect to the mass of the sublimated gas, a significant electron depletion is expected up to cometocentric distances of several tens of kilometers. We relate these results to the recent Cassini discoveries of very pronounced electron depletion compared with the positive ion population in the plume of Enceladus, which has been attributed to nanograin charging.

We present ¹²CO(2–1) line and 1300 μm continuum observations made with the Submillimeter Array of the young star DG Tau B. We find, in the continuum observations, emission arising from the circumstellar disk surrounding DG Tau B. The ¹²CO(2–1) line observations, on the other hand, revealed emission associated with the disk and the asymmetric outflow related with this source. Velocity asymmetries about the flow axis are found over the entire length of the flow. The amplitude of the velocity differences is of the order of 1–2 km s⁻¹ over distances of about 300–400 AU. We interpret them as a result of outflow rotation. The sense of the outflow and disk rotation is the same. Infalling gas from a rotating molecular core cannot explain the observed velocity gradient within the flow. Magneto-centrifugal disk winds or photoevaporated disk winds can produce the observed rotational speeds if they are ejected from a Keplerian disk at radii of several tens of AU. Nevertheless, these slow winds ejected from large radii are not very massive, and cannot account for the observed linear momentum and angular momentum rates of the molecular flow. Thus, the observed flow is probably entrained material from the parent cloud. DG Tau B is a good laboratory to model in detail the entrainment process and see if it can account for the observed angular momentum.

We present the first resolved near-infrared imagery of the transition disk Oph IRS 48 (WLY 2–48), which was recently observed with ALMA to have a strongly asymmetric submillimeter flux distribution. H-band polarized intensity images show a ∼60 AU radius scattered light cavity with two pronounced arcs of emission, one from northeast to southeast and one smaller, fainter, and more distant arc in the northwest. K-band scattered light imagery reveals a similar morphology, but with a clear third arc along the southwestern rim of the disk cavity. This arc meets the northwestern arc at nearly a right angle, revealing the presence of a spiral arm or local surface brightness deficit in the disk, and explaining the east–west brightness asymmetry in the H-band data. We also present 0.8–5.4 μm IRTF SpeX spectra of this object, which allow us to constrain the spectral class to A0 ± 1 and measure a low mass accretion rate of 10^−8.5 M_☉ yr⁻¹, both consistent with previous estimates. We investigate a variety of reddening laws in order to fit the multiwavelength spectral energy distribution of Oph IRS 48 and find a best fit consistent with a younger, higher luminosity star than previous estimates.

We present multiline CO observations of the complex submillimeter galaxy SMM J00266+1708. Using the Zpectrometer on the Green Bank Telescope, we provide the first precise spectroscopic measurement of its redshift (z = 2.742). Based on followup CO(1–0), CO(3–2), and CO(5–4) mapping, SMM J00266+1708 appears to have two distinct components separated by ∼500 km s⁻¹ that are nearly coincident along our line of sight. The two components show hints of different kinematics, with the blueshifted component dispersion-dominated and the redshifted component showing a clear velocity gradient. CO line ratios differ slightly between the two components, indicating that the physical conditions in their molecular gas may not be alike. We tentatively infer that SMM J00266+1708 is an ongoing merger with a mass ratio of (7.8 ± 4.0)/sin ²(i), with its overall size and surface brightness closely resembling that of other merging systems. We perform large velocity gradient modeling of the CO emission from both components and find that each component's properties are consistent with a single phase of molecular gas (i.e., a single temperatures and density); additional multi-phase modeling of the redshifted component, although motivated by a CO(1–0) size larger than the CO(3–2) size, is inconclusive. SMM J00266+1708 provides evidence of early stage mergers within the submillimeter galaxy population. Continuum observations of J00266 at the ∼1'' resolution of our observations could not have distinguished between the two components due to their separation (073 ± 006), illustrating that the additional velocity information provided by spectral line studies is important for addressing the prevalence of unresolved galaxy pairs in low-resolution submillimeter surveys.

We report on the acceleration properties of 329 features in 95 blazar jets from the MOJAVE Very Long Baseline Array program. Nearly half the features and three-quarters of the jets show significant changes in speed and/or direction. In general, apparent speed changes are distinctly larger than changes in direction, indicating that changes in the Lorentz factors of jet features dominate the observed speed changes rather than bends along the line of sight. Observed accelerations tend to increase the speed of features near the jet base, ≲ 10–20 pc projected, and decrease their speed at longer distances. The range of apparent speeds at a fixed distance in an individual jet can span a factor of a few, indicating that shock properties and geometry may influence the apparent motions; however, we suggest that the broad trend of jet features increasing their speed near the origin is due to an overall acceleration of the jet flow out to deprojected distances of the order of 10² pc, beyond which the flow begins to decelerate or remains nearly constant in speed. We estimate intrinsic rates of change of the Lorentz factors in the galaxy frame of the order of $\dot{\Gamma }/\Gamma \simeq 10^{-3}$ to 10⁻² yr⁻¹, which can lead to total Lorentz factor changes of a factor of a few on the length scales observed here. Finally, we also find evidence for jet collimation at projected distances of ≲ 10 pc in the form of the non-radial motion and bending accelerations that tend to better align features with the inner jet.

We attempt to forecast M- and X-class solar flares using a machine-learning algorithm, called support vector machine (SVM), and four years of data from the Solar Dynamics Observatory's Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager, the first instrument to continuously map the full-disk photospheric vector magnetic field from space. Most flare forecasting efforts described in the literature use either line-of-sight magnetograms or a relatively small number of ground-based vector magnetograms. This is the first time a large data set of vector magnetograms has been used to forecast solar flares. We build a catalog of flaring and non-flaring active regions sampled from a database of 2071 active regions, comprised of 1.5 million active region patches of vector magnetic field data, and characterize each active region by 25 parameters. We then train and test the machine-learning algorithm and we estimate its performances using forecast verification metrics with an emphasis on the true skill statistic (TSS). We obtain relatively high TSS scores and overall predictive abilities. We surmise that this is partly due to fine-tuning the SVM for this purpose and also to an advantageous set of features that can only be calculated from vector magnetic field data. We also apply a feature selection algorithm to determine which of our 25 features are useful for discriminating between flaring and non-flaring active regions and conclude that only a handful are needed for good predictive abilities.

We analyze sunspot oscillations using Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS) slit-jaw and spectral data and narrow-band chromospheric images from the New Solar Telescope (NST) for the main sunspot in NOAA AR 11836. We report that the difference between the shock arrival times as measured by the Mg ii k 2796.35 Å and Si iv 1393.76 Å line formation levels changes during the observed period, and peak-to-peak delays may range from 40 s to zero. The intensity of chromospheric shocks also displays long-term (about 20 min) variations. NST's high spatial resolution Hα data allowed us to conclude that, in this sunspot, umbral flashes (UFs) appeared in the form of narrow bright lanes stretched along the light bridges and around clusters of umbral bright points. The time series also suggested that UFs preferred to appear on the sunspot-center side of light bridges, which may indicate the existence of a compact sub-photospheric driver of sunspot oscillations. The sunspot's umbra as seen in the IRIS chromospheric and transition region data appears bright above the locations of light bridges and the areas where the dark umbra is dotted with clusters of umbral dots. Co-spatial and co-temporal data from the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly on board the Solar Dynamics Observatory showed that the same locations were associated with bright footpoints of coronal loops suggesting that the light bridges may play an important role in heating the coronal sunspot loops. Finally, the power spectra analysis showed that the intensity of chromospheric and transition region oscillations significantly vary across the umbra and with height, suggesting that umbral non-uniformities and the structure of sunspot magnetic fields may play a role in wave propagation and heating of umbral loops.

Baryon acoustic oscillations (BAO) are a powerful probe of the expansion history of the universe, which can tell us about the nature of dark energy. In order to accurately characterize the dark energy equation of state using BAO, we must understand the effects of both nonlinearities and redshift space distortions on the location and shape of the acoustic peak. In a previous paper, we introduced a novel approach to second order perturbation theory in configuration space using the Zel'dovich approximation, and presented a simple result for the first nonlinear term of the correlation function. In this paper, we extend this approach to redshift space. We show how to perform the computation and present the analytic result for the first nonlinear term in the correlation function. Finally, we validate our result through comparison with numerical simulations.

We use the statistics of caustic crossings induced by microlensing in the lens system Q 2237+0305 to study the lens galaxy peculiar velocity. We calculate the caustic crossing rates for a comprehensive family of stellar mass functions and find a dependence of the average number of caustic crossings with the effective transverse velocity and the average mass, $\langle n \rangle \propto {v_{{\rm eff}} / \sqrt{\langle m \rangle }}$, equivalent to the theoretical prediction for the case of microlenses with identical masses. We explore the possibilities of the method to measure v_eff using the ∼12 yr of Optical Gravitational Lensing Experiment monitoring of the four images of Q 2237+0305. To determine a lower limit for v_eff, we count, conservatively, a single caustic crossing for each one of the four high magnification events identified in the literature (plus one additional proposed by us) obtaining $v_{{\rm eff}} \gtrsim 240\sqrt{\langle m \rangle /0.17\, M_\odot }\rm \,km\, s^{-1}$ at 68% of confidence. From this value and the average FWHM of the four high magnification events, we obtain a lower limit of $r_s \gtrsim 1.4 \sqrt{\langle m \rangle /0.17\, M_\odot }$ light-days for the radius of the source (r_s = FWHM/2.35). Tentative identification of three additional caustic crossing events leads to estimates of $v_{{\rm eff}}\simeq (493\pm 246)\sqrt{\langle m \rangle /0.17\, M_\odot }\rm \,km\, s^{-1}$ for the effective transverse velocity and of $r_s \simeq (2.7\pm 1.3)\sqrt{\langle m \rangle /0.17\, M_\odot }$ light-days for the source size. The estimated transverse peculiar velocity of the galaxy is $v_t \simeq (429\pm 246)\sqrt{\langle m \rangle /0.17\, M_\odot }\rm \,km\, s^{-1}$.