Focus on Environmental Justice: Water and Energy Poverty in the Global South

Agriculture contributes up to 50% of the gross domestic product in some East African countries and is the backbone of the region's economy. Most farmers rely on traditional, small-scale subsistence farming with low fertilizer use and low-yield seeds. Similarly, less than 3% of the total cultivated area employs any form of irrigation, mostly non-pressurized. Meanwhile, electricity providers frequently struggle with low and unpredictable demand, challenging their ability to recover rural infrastructure investments. Using electricity to pump irrigation water can increase agricultural productivity and improve the financial sustainability of rural electricity supply. This study evaluates the productive and economic feasibility of pressurized small-scale irrigation systems in Ethiopia, Rwanda, and Uganda for three staple crops and two horticulture crops. To study these effects, we develop simplified engineering-based irrigation and hydrology models and combine them with an existing biophysical crop growth model using district-level agrometeorological, soil, and crop physiology data as inputs. Our results indicate that small-scale pressurized irrigation can significantly increase yields for horticulture crops and staples such as maize or potato grown with improved seeds and moderate or greater fertility levels. The sensitivity analysis shows that irrigation may be techno-economically viable in up to 36% of Ethiopian woredas, 67% of Rwandan districts, and 45% of Ugandan districts provided the use of improved cultivars and non-limiting fertility conditions. These results highlight the value of complementing irrigation investments with electricity infrastructure in East Africa.

Universal access to cleaner cooking fuels (including liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)) is a key target of Sustainable Development Goal 7. Currently, approximately 40 million Kenyans rely on polluting cooking fuels (e.g. charcoal, wood). While the Kenyan government aims to rapidly scale up use of LPG for cooking by 2030, COVID-19 restrictions and a 16% value added tax (VAT) re-introduced on LPG in 2021 have likely hampered progress in LPG uptake. We aimed to quantify the effect of these economic shocks on food and energy security in Langas informal urban settlement in western Kenya. We further evaluated whether households most adversely affected by COVID-19 restrictions were more likely to be socioeconomically impacted by the VAT re-imposition. A cross-sectional survey (n = 1542) assessed changes in cooking fuel patterns, food security and livelihoods of primary cooks due to these two economic shocks. While under COVID-19 restrictions, 75% (n = 1147) of participants reported income declines and 18% (n = 164) of participants using LPG (n = 922) switched their primary cooking fuel to charcoal, wood or kerosene. Households reporting lower income while under COVID-19 restrictions had 5.3 times (95% CI:[3.8,7.4]) the odds of experiencing food insecurity as those with no change in income. Unemployment and food insecurity under COVID-19 restrictions were substantially higher among informal sector workers (70% and 60%, respectively) compared with business/government employees (45% and 37%, respectively). Following the VAT re-introduction, 44% (n = 356) of households using LPG consumed less, and 34% (n = 276) cooked more frequently with polluting fuels. Individuals switching away from LPG under COVID-19 restrictions had 3.0 times (95% CI:[2.1,4.3]) the odds of reducing their LPG consumption due to the VAT re-introduction as those maintaining use of LPG. COVID-19 restrictions and the VAT re-introduction disproportionately negatively affected informal sector workers' livelihoods. A zero-rating of VAT on LPG can help alleviate deepened inequities in LPG access in Kenya.

The United Nations identifies ensuring 'access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all' as one of its Sustainable Development Goals for 2030. This article focuses on the comparatively under-investigated question of reliability within the broader goal. We empirically study experienced household electricity reliability using common frameworks in key countries such as Tanzania, Kenya, and India. Datasets represent a diverse set of technologies including solar home systems (SHS), solar pico-grids, and national electricity grids. First, the prevailing reliability metrics—SAIDI and SAIFI—are measured for all datasets. Informed by critical assessments, this article then proposes a suite of new metrics that facilitate improved reliability comparisons by considering the reasons, timing, and fairness of outage distribution. Analyses using our proposed metrics reveal key policy implications for addressing energy poverty in the Global South. Acknowledging that the systems studied provide different capacity, affordability, and carbon footprints, we find that on average, SHS provided comparable hours of lighting to local grid connections, however SHS outages were less equally distributed than those from other sources. In addition, calculations of grid reliability were highly sensitive to measurement techniques and assumptions used, necessitating high resolution data for policy decisions. Finally, economically driven outages conspicuous in pre-paid SHS systems (i.e., disconnections for non-payment) composed a significant portion of experienced unreliability. These findings quantify the important contribution of demand-side affordability to experienced household reliability, thereby allowing for a comprehensive understanding of the reliability of SDG 7.

Background. Traditional cookstoves that burn solid biomass are associated with inefficient burning, a high degree of household air pollution and high morbidity rates. A key barrier to the adoption of clean cookstoves has been the cost of fuels. Hence, a Thermo-Electric Generating (TEG) cookstove that used solid biomass fuels more efficiently and released less smoke was developed. The TEG cookstove also generates electricity to power small electric devices. Fifteen TEG cookstoves were distributed to villagers in the Indian state of Uttarakhand in 2019. Objective. We wanted to understand whether, after two years of distribution, TEG cookstoves were still used, what and where they were used for, their perceived impacts on health, and the barriers to their use. Methods used. We surveyed 10 of the 15 recipient households. We applied the Capability, Opportunity, Motivation-Behaviour and Behaviour Change Wheel frameworks to understand what the barriers to adoption were, and what could be done to surmount these. Results. All respondents reported lower smoke levels and most respondents reported that the TEG cookstoves required less fuelwood than their traditional cookstoves, but none had used them in the month prior to the survey. Discussion. For those whose TEG cookstoves were still usable and had not been made redundant by clean cookstoves, we found there to be physical opportunity barriers and psychological capability barriers. Physical opportunity barriers included a small inlet for fuel, limited versatility beyond cooking at low temperatures, and the availability of only one hob. To surmount these barriers, we recommend co-design to suit user needs and education emphasising visible benefits of avoided soot on kitchen walls, in addition to the health benefits.

We present a data-driven typology framework for understanding patterns in drinking water accessibility across low- and middle-income countries. Further, we obtain novel typology-specific insights regarding the relationships between possible explanatory variables and typology outcomes. First, we conducted exploratory factor analysis to obtain a smaller set of interpretable factors from the initial set of 17 drinking water accessibility indicators from 73 countries. The resulting seven factors summarize the key drivers for water accessibility, and also serve as a vehicle for framing discussions on country outcomes. We clustered the countries based on their seven-dimensional water accessibility factor scores, referring to the resulting three clusters as 'typologies,' namely, Decentralized, Centralized and Hybrid. The typologies serve as a vehicle for analyzing water accessibility among countries with similar patterns, in contrast with geographically-based approaches. Finally, we fitted a decision tree classifier to analyze relationships between a country's typology membership and socioeconomic, geographic and transportation explanatory variables. We found that private car ownership, population density and per-capita gross domestic product are most relevant in predicting a country's drinking water accessibility typology.

Gender equity is connected to modern energy services in many ways, but quantitative empirical work on these connections is limited. We examine the relationship between a multi-dimensional measure of women's empowerment and access to improved cookstoves, clean fuels, and electricity. We use the World Bank Multi-Tier Framework survey datasets from seven countries that include almost 25 000 households in Africa and Asia. First, we apply principal component analysis to construct a household level empowerment index, using data on women's education, credit access, social capital, mobility, and employment. Then, we use simple regression analysis to study the correlation between empowerment and energy access at the household level. We find a positive association between the women's empowerment index and energy access variables, though this household pattern does not hold across all countries and contexts. While we do not claim that these relationships are causal, to our knowledge this is a fresh analysis of how the empowerment of women is differentially correlated with household energy access across geographies and technologies. Thus, our analysis provides a first step to further work aimed at clarifying gender-energy linkages.

Sustainable agricultural intensification requires irrigation methods and strategies to minimize yield penalties while optimizing water, land and energy use efficiencies. We assessed, from a silo-based and integrated water-energy-food (WEF) nexus perspective, the performance of irrigation technologies in different agro-climatic regions. Secondary to this, we assessed the impact of adopting systematic approaches such as the WEF nexus on improving efficiency in irrigated agriculture through irrigation modernization. The evidence-based perspectives of silo-based performances individually considered the metrics of yield (Y), water use efficiency (WUE), and energy productivity (EP). The WEF nexus approach applied sustainability polygons to integrate the three metrics into a nexus index representing the holistic performance of the irrigation technologies. Silo-based performance in temperate regions suggests net gains for WUE (+1.10 kg m⁻³) and Y (+6.29 ton ha⁻¹) when transitioning from furrow to sprinkler irrigation, with a net loss in EP (−3.82 ton MJ⁻¹). There is potential for a net loss on EP (−3.33 ton MJ⁻¹) when transitioning from furrow to drip system in temperate regions. The best performance of irrigation technologies in dry regions in water, energy and food silos was achieved by sprinkler, drip and furrow irrigation systems, respectively. Thus, appraising irrigation technologies from a silos perspective promotes individual silos, which renders an unsustainable picture of the performance of irrigation systems. The integrative WEF nexus approach successfully highlighted the trade-offs and synergies in the nexus of water, energy and food in irrigated agriculture. Drip irrigation led all irrigation technologies in WEF nexus performance in dry (21.44 unit²), tropical (23.98 unit²), and temperate regions (47.28 unit²). Overall, the irrigation modernization pathway to drip technology from either furrow or sprinkler systems improves irrigated agriculture's WEF nexus performance in all three regions for more crop per drop per joule per hectare under climate change. This can promote inclusive and sustainable irrigation development within the planetary boundaries.

Sustainable intensification (SI) of low input farming systems is promoted as a strategy to improve smallholder farmer food security in southern Africa. Using the Limpopo province South Africa as a case study (four villages across a climate gradient), we combined survey data (140 households) and quantitative agronomic observations to understand climate-induced limitations for SI of maize-based smallholder systems. Insights were used to benchmark the agroecosystem model Agricultural Production System sIMulator, which was setup to ex ante evaluate technology packages (TPs) over 21-seasons (1998–2019): TP0 status quo (no input, broadcast sowing), TP1 fertiliser (micro dosing), TP2 planting density (recommended), TP3 weeding (all removed), TP4 irrigation, TP5 planting date (early, recommended), and TP6 all combined (TPs 1–5). An additional TP7 (forecasting) investigated varying planting density and fertiliser in line with weather forecasts. Input intensity levels were low and villages expressed similar challenges to climate risk adaptation, with strategies mostly limited to adjusted planting dates and densities, with less than 2% of farmers having access to water for irrigation. Simulations showed that combining all management interventions would be expected to lead to the highest mean maize grain yields (3200 kg ha⁻¹ across villages) and the lowest harvest failure risk compared to individual interventions. Likewise, simulations suggested that irrigation alone would not result in yield gains and simple agronomic adjustments in line with weather forecasts indicated that farmers could expect to turn rainfall variability into an opportunity well worth taking advantage of. Our study emphasises the need for a cropping systems approach that addresses multiple crop stresses simultaneously.

Affordability is a major barrier to the adoption of clean energy technologies in low-income countries, which is partly why many governments provide subsidies to offset some of the upfront (installation) costs. However, simple administrative rules might not fully account for economic geography, resulting in lower subsidies for remote areas. Using regression analysis on a rich dataset of adoption, cost and subsidy for about 4000 Nepalese Village Development Committees over 22 years, we show that administratively determined lumpsum subsidies disproportionately hurt remote communities. Simulations show that adjusting the subsidy spatially to reflect the geographic cost of living, can increase clean technology adoption. Thus, spatial targeting of subsidies is key to accelerating energy access in remote settings such as the Hindu Kush Himalaya.

Increased variability of the water cycle manifested by climate change is a growing global threat to agriculture with strong implications for food and livelihood security. Thus, there is an urgent need for adaptation in agriculture. Agricultural water management (AWM) interventions, interventions for managing water supply and demand, are extensively promoted and implemented as adaptation measures in multiple development programs globally. Studies assessing these adaptation measures overwhelmingly focus on positive impacts, however, there is a concern that these studies may be biased towards well-managed and successful projects and often miss out on reporting negative externalities. These externalities result from coevolutionary dynamics of human–water systems as AWM interventions impact hydrological flows and their use and adoption is shaped by the societal response. We review the documented externalities of AWM interventions and present a conceptual framework classifying negative externalities linked to water and human systems into negative hydrological externalities and unexpected societal feedbacks. We show that these externalities can lead to long term unsustainable and inequitable outcomes. Understanding how the externalities lead to undesirable outcomes demands rigorous modeling of the feedbacks between human and water systems, for which we discuss the key criteria that such models should meet. Based on these criteria, we showcase that differentiated and limited inclusion of key feedbacks in current water modeling approaches (e.g. hydrological models, hydro-economic, and water resource models) is a critical limitation and bottleneck to understanding and predicting negative externalities of AWM interventions. To account for the key feedback, we find agent-based modeling (ABM) as the method that has the potential to meet the key criteria. Yet there are gaps that need to be addressed in the context of ABM as a tool to unravel the negative externalities of AWM interventions. We carry out a systemic review of ABM application to agricultural systems, capturing how it is currently being applied and identifying the knowledge gaps that need to be bridged to unravel the negative externalities of AWM interventions. We find that ABM has been extensively used to model agricultural systems and, in many cases, the resulting externalities with unsustainable and inequitable outcomes. However, gaps remain in terms of limited use of integrated surface–groundwater hydrological models, inadequate representation of farmers' behavior with heavy reliance on rational choice or simple heuristics and ignoring heterogeneity of farmers' characteristics within a population.

For a rapid energy transition to renewable energy, green hydrogen is increasingly considered a solution to a myriad of challenges: climate neutrality, clean energy supply, and decoupling of growth and carbon emissions. However, whether the global hydrogen transition will indeed be a just transition is far from certain. This paper introduces the concept of hydrogen justice as an analytical toolkit to help examining justice challenges of the global hydrogen transition. Placing hydrogen justice at the nexus of energy, water and climate justice, and incorporating crucial insights from political ecology and decolonial studies we highlight potential hydrogen injustices and suggest a six-dimensional concept of hydrogen justice: procedural, distributive, restorative, relational, recognitional and epistemological justice. Our research explores socio-ecological, political and economic conditions in hydrogen target countries and examines emerging hydrogen projects and partnerships. Hydrogen injustices may manifest around issues of energy access in countries with high rates of energy poverty, water access in arid regions, as well as forced displacements, impairments of Indigenous livelihoods and the strengthening of authoritarian rule. We conclude that hydrogen injustices result from the interplay of global hydrogen governance and local conditions in producing countries. We illustrate this with examples from transnational hydrogen projects situated in Morocco and Namibia. Finally, we suggest strategies for redressing hydrogen injustices by integrating justice principles at all scales of hydrogen governance.

Population growth, urbanization and intensification of irrigated agriculture in the world's deltas boost the demand for fresh water, with extensive groundwater extraction as a result. This, in turn, leads to salt water intrusion and upconing, which poses a threat to freshwater and food security. Managing fresh groundwater resources in deltas requires accurate knowledge about the current status and behaviour of their fresh groundwater resources. However, this knowledge is scarcely present, especially for groundwater at larger depths. Here, we use three-dimensional variable-density groundwater model simulations over the last 125 ka to estimate the volume of fresh groundwater resources for 15 major deltas around the world. We estimate current volumes of onshore fresh groundwater resources for individual deltas to vary between 10¹⁰ m³ and 10¹² m³. Offshore, the estimated volumes of fresh groundwater are generally smaller, though with a considerably higher variability. In 9 out of 15 simulated deltas, fresh groundwater volumes developed over thousands of years. Based on current groundwater extraction and recharge rates, we estimate the time until in-situ fresh groundwater resources are completely exhausted, partly leading to groundwater level decline and mostly replacement with river water or saline groundwater. This straightforward analysis shows that 4 out of 15 deltas risk complete exhaustion of fresh groundwater resources within 300 m depth in 200 years. These deltas also suffer from saline surface water which means their groundwater resources will progressively salinize. With a fourfold increase in extraction rates, seven deltas risk a complete exhaustion within 200 years. Of these seven deltas, six suffer from saline surface water. We stress that the groundwater of these six vulnerable deltas should be carefully managed, to avoid non-renewable groundwater use. The progressive exhaustion of fresh groundwater resources in these deltas will hamper their ability to withstand periods of water scarcity.