International Year of Light 2015

In spontaneous parametric down-conversion, pairs of photons are known to be created coherently and with equal probability over the entire length of the crystal. Then, there is no particular position in the crystal where a photon pair is created. We make the seemingly contradictory observation that the time delay between the photons in the pair depends on the distance from the crystal to the collection lens, as if the photons were actually collected preferentially from a particular position in the crystal. We resolve this contradiction by showing that the spatio–temporal correlations critically affect the temporal properties of the pair of photons. The theoretical model we present matches all our experimental results. We expect this to have important implications for experiments that require indistinguishable photons.

We investigate the soliton frequency shifts for few-cycle ultrashort laser pulses propagating through resonant media embedded within subwavelength structures, and we elucidate the underlying physics. Full-wave Maxwell–Bloch equations are solved numerically by using the finite-difference time-domain method. It is shown that both soliton blueshift and redshift can occur by changing the period of the structures. We found that the rereflected waves play an essential role in this process. When the pulse propagates through the periodic structures, the reflected waves can be rereflected back by the thin layers, which can further induce the controllable frequency shifts of the generated solitons. This suggests a way to tailor the light solitons over a large spectral range.

In this work we demonstrate a polarization sensitive computational imaging system based on a digital micro-mirror device (DMD) and several single-pixel photodetectors. By taking advantage of computational imaging techniques, the light measured by each single-pixel detector can reconstruct a 2D image for a specific linear polarization state. Using the rapid $22\;{\rm kHz}$ frame-rate of the DMD to continuously project a series of spatially orthogonal illumination patterns, near video-rate reconstructions can be achieved. In addition we extend this approach to provide full-colour images through a process of sequential colour selection (RGB). Taking the difference between photodetector signals from orthogonal linear polarization states, we obtain images corresponding to the linear Stokes parameters. We apply this rapid polarization sensitive imaging system to inert and biological material. Since the spatial information in the images reconstructed by this approach are determined by the projection system, rather than the detectors, the approach provides perfect pixel registration between the various polarization selective images and associated Stokes parameters. Furthermore, the use of single-pixel detectors and the large operational bandwidth afforded by DMDʼs means that the approach can readily be extended for imaging at wavelengths where detector arrays are unavailable or limited.

We theoretically study the emergence of strong coupling in the interaction between quantum emitters and the localized surface plasmons of a metal nanoparticle. Owing to their quasi-degenerate nature, the continuum of multi-poles is shown to behave as a pseudomode strongly coupled to single emitters instead of as a Markovian bath. We demonstrate that the corresponding capping of the induced loss rate enables collective strong coupling to the dipole mode. Numerical simulations and analytical modeling are applied to several configurations of increasing complexity to grasp the relevant physics. In particular, the emitters closest to the nanoparticle surface are proven to contribute the most to the build-up of the plasmon-exciton polaritons, in contrast with the weak-coupling picture of quenching.

We identify phase and polarization singularities in near-field measurements and theoretical modeling of the electric near-field distributions that result from the scattering of surface plasmon polaritons from single subwavelength holes in optically thick gold films. We discuss properties of the singularities, such as their topological charge or the field amplitudes at their locations. We show that it is possible to tune the in-plane field amplitude at the positions of the polarization singularities by three orders of magnitude simply by varying the hole or incident plasmon beam size.

The statistics of particles incident on a beam splitter has important applications in quantum protocols such as teleportation or Bell state analysis. We study particle pairs with multiple degrees of freedom in terms of exchange symmetry and show that the particle statistics at a beam splitter can be controlled for suitably chosen states. We propose an experimental test of these ideas using orbital angular momentum entangled photons.

Soft matter is studied with a large portfolio of methods. Light scattering and video microscopy are the most employed at optical wavelengths. Light scattering provides ensemble-averaged information on soft matter in the reciprocal space. The wave-vectors probed correspond to length scales ranging from a few nanometers to fractions of millimetre. Microscopy probes the sample directly in the real space, by offering a unique access to the local properties. However, optical resolution issues limit the access to length scales smaller than approximately 200 nm. We describe recent work that bridges the gap between scattering and microscopy. Several apparently unrelated techniques are found to share a simple basic idea: the correlation properties of the sample can be characterized in the reciprocal space via spatial Fourier analysis of images collected in the real space. We describe the main features of such digital Fourier microscopy (DFM), by providing examples of several possible experimental implementations of it, some of which not yet realized in practice. We also provide an overview of experimental results obtained with DFM for the study of the dynamics of soft materials. Finally, we outline possible future developments of DFM that would ease its adoption as a standard laboratory method.

We report the design and first implementation of an active polarimetric imaging system based on the recently introduced concept of polarimetric sensing by orthogonality breaking, which involves a specific crossed-polarization dual-frequency illumination. We describe the laser source architecture and microscope set-up devoted to visible imaging at 488 nm, as well as the specific homodyne detection chain required for orthogonality breaking measurements. The first polarimetric images obtained with this non-conventional approach are presented. The polarimetric contrasts observed validate the polarimetric sensitivity of the technique.

Optical beams radiated by a recently introduced class of Rectangular Multi-Gaussian Schell-Model (RMGSM) source are examined on propagation in free space and in atmospheric turbulence, with both classic and non-classic power spectra of the refractive-index fluctuations. The expression for the cross-spectral density function of such beams has been derived and used for the analysis of their spectral density (average intensity). The RMGSM beams are shown to preserve the square/rectangular shape of the transverse intensity distribution and the maximum intensity level in the flat part for relatively large distances from the source on propagation in classic turbulence. This makes the novel beams attractive for free-space optical communications and surface processing in the presence of the atmosphere.

We study the interaction of electromagnetic (EM) radiation with single-layer graphene and a stack of parallel graphene sheets at arbitrary angles of incidence. It is found that the behavior is qualitatively different for transverse magnetic (or p-polarized) and transverse electric (or s-polarized) waves. In particular, the absorbance of single-layer graphene attains a minimum (maximum) for the p (s)-polarization at the angle of total internal reflection when the light comes from a medium with a higher dielectric constant. In the case of equal dielectric constants of the media above and beneath graphene, for grazing incidence graphene is almost 100% transparent to p-polarized waves and acts as a tunable mirror for the s-polarization. These effects are enhanced for a stack of graphene sheets, so the system can work as a broad band polarizer. It is shown further that a periodic stack of graphene layers has the properties of a one-dimensional photonic crystal, with gaps (or stop bands) at certain frequencies. When an incident EM wave is reflected from this photonic crystal, the tunability of the graphene conductivity renders the possibility of controlling the gaps, and the structure can operate as a tunable spectral-selective mirror.

Here, we address the question of the validity of an effective description for hyperbolic metamaterials in the near-field region. We show that the presence of localized modes such as surface waves drastically limits the validity of the effective description, and requires revisiting the concept of homogenization in the near-field. We demonstrate, from exact scattering matrix calculations for multilayer hyperbolic structures, that one can find surface modes in spectral regions where the effective approach predicts hyperbolic modes only. Hence, the presence of surface modes which are not accounted for in the effective description can lead to physical misinterpretations in the description of hyperbolic materials and their related properties. In particular, we discuss in detail how the choice of the topmost layer affects the validity of the effective medium approach for calculating the local density of states and the super-Planckian thermal radiation.

A new approach to reconstructing an optically sectioned image using structured illumination is presented. Compared to the algorithm proposed by Neil et al (1997 Opt. Lett. 22 1905), this method uses the same number of images to construct a final image with a flat linear transfer function at the cost of slightly more complexity in the reconstruction algorithm. Compared to other optical sectioning algorithms using structured illumination, this approach produces images with higher contrast and better image fidelity at low signal intensities.

Optical super-oscillations, first predicted in 1952 and observed in 2007, offer a promising route to optical super-resolution imaging and show potential for manufacturing with light and data-storage applications such as direct optical recording and heat assisted magnetic recording. We review the history and basic physics behind the phenomenon of super-oscillation and its application in optics. We overview recent results in creating optical super-oscillations using binary masks, spatial light modulators and planar metamaterial masks. We also investigate the limits and competitiveness of super-oscillatory imaging.

Localization microscopy software generally contains three elements: a localization algorithm to determine fluorophore positions on a specimen, a quality control method to exclude imprecise localizations, and a visualization technique to reconstruct an image of the specimen. Such algorithms may be designed for either sparse or partially overlapping (dense) fluorescence image data, and making a suitable choice of software depends on whether an experiment calls for simplicity and resolution (favouring sparse methods), or for rapid data acquisition and time resolution (requiring dense methods). We discuss the factors involved in this choice. We provide a full set of MATLAB routines as a guide to localization image processing, and demonstrate the usefulness of image simulations as a guide to the potential artefacts that can arise when processing over-dense experimental fluorescence images with a sparse localization algorithm.

Fano resonances and optical vortices originate from two types of interference phenomena. Usually, these effects are considered to be completely independent, and in many cases Fano resonances are observed without any link to vortices, as well as vortices with a singular phase structure that are not accompanied by Fano resonances. However, this situation changes dramatically when we study light scattering at the nanoscale. In this paper, we demonstrate that Fano resonances observed for light scattering by nanoparticles are accompanied by the singular phase effects usually associated with singular optics, and we introduce and describe optical vortices with characteristic core sizes well below the diffraction limit.

The occurrence of rogue waves (freak waves) associated with electromagnetic pulse propagation interacting with a plasma is investigated, from first principles. A multiscale technique is employed to solve the fluid Maxwell equations describing weakly nonlinear circularly polarized electromagnetic pulses in magnetized plasmas. A nonlinear Schrödinger (NLS) type equation is shown to govern the amplitude of the vector potential. A set of non-stationary envelope solutions of the NLS equation are considered as potential candidates for the modeling of rogue waves (freak waves) in beam–plasma interactions, namely in the form of the Peregrine soliton, the Akhmediev breather and the Kuznetsov–Ma breather. The variation of the structural properties of the latter structures with relevant plasma parameters is investigated, in particular focusing on the ratio between the (magnetic field dependent) cyclotron (gyro-)frequency and the plasma frequency.

We considered the modulational instability of continuous-wave backgrounds, and the related generation and evolution of deterministic rogue waves in the recently introduced parity–time ()-symmetric system of linearly coupled nonlinear Schrödinger equations, which describes a Kerr-nonlinear optical coupler with mutually balanced gain and loss in its cores. Besides the linear coupling, the overlapping cores are coupled through the cross-phase-modulation term too. While the rogue waves, built according to the pattern of the Peregrine soliton, are (quite naturally) unstable, we demonstrate that the focusing cross-phase-modulation interaction results in their partial stabilization. For -symmetric and antisymmetric bright solitons, the stability region is found too, in an exact analytical form, and verified by means of direct simulations.

We report on the realization of on-demand reconfigurable arbitrary arrays of microscopic optical vortex generators in chiral liquid crystals. These generators are optically inscribed in frustrated cholesteric films by means of the laser-induced local winding of the chiral liquid crystal mesophase. This leads to the storage of microscopic, metastable, topological defect structures endowed with space-variant birefringent properties. Such structures are shown to produce optical vortices with a well-defined orbital state as a result of a spin-to-orbital angular momentum conversion process.

We analyse the ponderomotive action experienced by a small spherical particle immersed in an optical field, in relation to the internal energy flows (optical currents) and their spin and orbital constituents. The problem is studied analytically, on the basis of the dipole model, and numerically. The three sources of the field mechanical action—the energy density gradient and the orbital and spin parts of the energy flow—differ in their ponderomotive mechanisms, and their physical nature manifests itself in the dependence of the optical force on the particle radius a. If a ≪ λ (the radiation wavelength), the optical force behaves as a^ν, and integer ν can be used to classify the sources of the mechanical action. This classification correlates with the multipole representation of the field–particle interaction: the gradient force and the orbital momentum force appear due to the electric or magnetic dipole moments per se; the spin momentum force emerges due to interaction between the electric and magnetic dipoles or between the dipole and quadrupole moments (if the particle is polarizable electrically but not magnetically or vice versa). In principle, the spin and orbital currents can be measured separately through the probe particle motion, employing a special choice of particles with the necessary magnetic and/or electric properties.

We report on the generation of optical vortex beams using spatial phase modulation with spiral phase mirrors. The spiral phase mirrors are manufactured by direct machining with an ultra-precision single point diamond turning lathe. The imperfection of the machined phase mirrors and its impact on the generated vortex beams are analyzed with interferometric measurements. Our phase mirror has a surface roughness of 3 nm and a maximum peak–valley deviation of λ/30. The vortex charges of our light beams are directly verified by counting the fringes of their corresponding interferograms. We directly observed the successful generation of an optical vortex beam with a charge as high as 5050. We study the Fourier images of the vortex beams to characterize the quality of the beams. We obtained a conversion efficiency of 92.8% from a TEM₀₀ beam to a vortex beam with charge 1020. This technique of generating optical singularities can potentially be used to produce more complex optical wavefronts, such as optical knots.

Waves involving Bessel functions can oscillate faster than their band-limited Fourier transforms suggest, with the superoscillations being fastest near phase singularities. Different waves representing a 'flyby' close to a phase singularity are analysed. These can superoscillate similarly, despite being differently normalized, or not normalizable at all.

The analogies between optical and electronic Goos–Hänchen effects are established based on electron wave optics in semiconductor or graphene-based nanostructures. In this paper, we give a brief overview of the progress achieved so far in the field of electronic Goos–Hänchen shifts, and show the relevant optical analogies. In particular, we present several theoretical results on the giant positive and negative Goos–Hänchen shifts in various semiconductor or graphene-based nanostructures, their controllability, and potential applications in electronic devices, e.g. spin (or valley) beam splitters.

Some image encryption systems based on modified double random phase encoding and joint transform correlator architecture produce low quality decrypted images and are vulnerable to a variety of attacks. In this work, we analyse the algorithm of some reported methods that optically implement the double random phase encryption in a joint transform correlator. We show that it is possible to significantly improve the quality of the decrypted image by introducing a simple nonlinear operation in the encrypted function that contains the joint power spectrum. This nonlinearity also makes the system more resistant to chosen-plaintext attacks. We additionally explore the system resistance against this type of attack when a variety of probability density functions are used to generate the two random phase masks of the encryption–decryption process. Numerical results are presented and discussed.

We consider reflection and transmission of polarized paraxial light beams at a plane dielectric interface. The field transformations taking into account a finite beam width are described based on the plane-wave representation and geometric rotations. Using geometrical-optics coordinate frames accompanying the beams, we construct an effective Jones matrix characterizing spatial-dispersion properties of the interface. This results in a unified self-consistent description of the Goos–Hänchen and Imbert–Fedorov shifts (the latter being also known as the spin Hall effect of light). Our description reveals the intimate relation of the transverse Imbert–Fedorov shift to the geometric phases between constituent waves in the beam spectrum and to the angular momentum conservation for the whole beam. Both spatial and angular shifts are considered as well as their analogues for higher-order vortex beams carrying intrinsic orbital angular momentum. We also give a brief overview of various extensions and generalizations of the basic beam-shift phenomena and related effects.

The integration of photon-counting imaging techniques and optical encryption systems can improve information authentication robustness against intruder attacks. Photon-counting imaging generates distributions with far fewer photons than conventional imaging and provides substantial bandwidth reduction by generating sparse encrypted data. We show that photon-limited encrypted distributions have sufficient information for successful decryption, authentication and signal retrieval. Additional compression of the encrypted distribution is applied by limiting the number of phase values used to reproduce the phase information of the complex-valued encrypted data. The validity of this technique—with and without phase compression—is probed through simulated experiments for two types of input images: alphanumerical signs and dithered natural scenes.

Optical imaging beyond the diffraction limit, i.e., optical superresolution, has been studied extensively in various contexts. This paper presents an overview of some mathematical concepts relevant to superresolution in linear optical systems. Properties of bandlimited functions are surveyed and are related to both instrumental and computational aspects of superresolution. The phenomenon of superoscillation and its relation to superresolution are discussed.

We propose a new phase retrieval algorithm for optical image encryption in three-dimensional (3D) space. The two-dimensional (2D) plaintext is considered as a series of particles distributed in 3D space, and an iterative phase retrieval algorithm is developed to encrypt the series of particles into phase-only masks. The feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed method are demonstrated by a numerical experiment, and the advantages and security of the proposed optical cryptosystems are also analyzed and discussed.