Table of contents

We present the results of local, vertically stratified, radiation magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) shearing box simulations of magneto-rotational instability (MRI) turbulence appropriate for the hydrogen ionizing regime of dwarf nova and soft X-ray transient outbursts. We incorporate the frequency-integrated opacities and equation of state for this regime, but neglect non-ideal MHD effects and surface irradiation, and do not impose net vertical magnetic flux. We find two stable thermal equilibrium tracks in the effective temperature versus surface mass density plane, in qualitative agreement with the S-curve picture of the standard disk instability model. We find that the large opacity at temperatures near 10⁴ K, a corollary of the hydrogen ionization transition, triggers strong, intermittent thermal convection on the upper stable branch. This convection strengthens the magnetic turbulent dynamo and greatly enhances the time-averaged value of the stress to thermal pressure ratio α, possibly by generating vertical magnetic field that may seed the axisymmetric MRI, and by increasing cooling so that the pressure does not rise in proportion to the turbulent dissipation. These enhanced stress to pressure ratios may alleviate the order of magnitude discrepancy between the α-values observationally inferred in the outburst state and those that have been measured from previous local numerical simulations of magnetorotational turbulence that lack net vertical magnetic flux.

The effective collision strengths for electron-impact excitation of fine-structure transitions in Si vii are calculated as a function of electron temperature in the range 5000–2,000,000 K. The B-spline Breit–Pauli R-matrix method has been used to calculate collision strengths by electron impact. The target wave functions have been obtained using the multi-configuration Hartree–Fock method with term-dependent non-orthogonal orbitals. The 92 fine-structure levels belonging to the 46 LS states of 2s²2p⁴, 2s2p⁵, 2p⁶, 2s²2p³3s, 2s²2p³3p, 2s²2p³3d, and 2s2p⁴3s configurations are included in our calculations of oscillator strengths and collision strengths. There are 4186 possible fine-structure allowed and forbidden transitions among the 92 levels. The present excitation energies, oscillator strengths, and collision strengths have been compared with previous theoretical results and available experimental data. Generally, a good agreement is found with the 6 LS-state close-coupling approximation results of Butler & Zeippen and the 44 LS-state distorted wave calculation of Bhatia & Landi.

We report on spectra of two positions in the XA region of the Cygnus Loop supernova remnant obtained with the InfraRed Spectrograph on the Spitzer Space Telescope. The spectra span the 10–35 μm wavelength range, which contains a number of collisionally excited forbidden lines. These data are supplemented by optical spectra obtained at the Whipple Observatory and an archival UV spectrum from the International Ultraviolet Explorer. Coverage from the UV through the IR provides tests of shock wave models and tight constraints on model parameters. Only lines from high ionization species are detected in the spectrum of a filament on the edge of the remnant. The filament traces a 180 km s⁻¹ shock that has just begun to cool, and the oxygen to neon abundance ratio lies in the normal range found for Galactic H ii regions. Lines from both high and low ionization species are detected in the spectrum of the cusp of a shock–cloud interaction, which lies within the remnant boundary. The spectrum of the cusp region is matched by a shock of about 150 km s⁻¹ that has cooled and begun to recombine. The post-shock region has a swept-up column density of about 1.3 × 10¹⁸ cm⁻², and the gas has reached a temperature of 7000–8000 K. The spectrum of the Cusp indicates that roughly half of the refractory silicon and iron atoms have been liberated from the grains. Dust emission is not detected at either position.

The interaction of high-energy particles affected by quantum gravity is argued from the experimental viewpoint of raising a question, ``our detection method for high-energy γ-rays supplies trustworthy observation data and we are now seeing the true image of the universe through high-energy γ-rays?" The modified dispersion relation (MDR) for particles' energy and momentum is applied to the equation of energy–momentum conservation in particle reactions, to study the restriction imposed on the kinematic state of high-energy particles by the Lorentz invariance violation (LIV) due to quantum gravity, as a function of the incident particle energy of the reaction. The result suggests that the interaction utilized for γ-ray detection is not free from the effect of quantum gravity when γ-ray energy is higher than 10¹³ ∼ 10¹⁷ eV depending on models of MDR. Discussion is presented on the prospect of finding clear evidence of the LIV effect from γ-ray observations, as well as on the radiation and propagation mechanism of γ-rays under the influence of the LIV effect.

We present the discovery of a comoving planetary-mass companion ∼42'' (∼2000 AU) from a young M3 star, GU Psc, a likely member of the young AB Doradus Moving Group (ABDMG). The companion was first identified via its distinctively red i − z color (>3.5) through a survey made with Gemini-S/GMOS. Follow-up Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope/WIRCam near-infrared (NIR) imaging, Gemini-N/GNIRS NIR spectroscopy and Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer photometry indicate a spectral type of T3.5 ± 1 and reveal signs of low gravity which we attribute to youth. Keck/Adaptive Optics NIR observations did not resolve the companion as a binary. A comparison with atmosphere models indicates T_eff = 1000–1100 K and log g = 4.5–5.0. Based on evolution models, this temperature corresponds to a mass of 9–13  M_Jup for the age of ABDMG (70–130 Myr). The relatively well-constrained age of this companion and its very large angular separation to its host star will allow its thorough characterization and will make it a valuable comparison for planetary-mass companions that will be uncovered by forthcoming planet-finder instruments such as Gemini Planet Imager and SPHERE.

We report estimated carbon-abundance ratios, [C/Fe], for seven newly discovered carbon-enhanced metal-poor (CEMP) RR Lyrae stars. These are well-studied RRab stars that had previously been selected as CEMP candidates based on low-resolution spectra. For this pilot study, we observed eight of these CEMP RR Lyrae candidates with the Wide Field Spectrograph on the ANU 2.3 m telescope. Prior to this study, only two CEMP RR Lyrae stars had been discovered: TY Gru and SDSS J1707+58. We compare our abundances to new theoretical models of the evolution of low-mass stars in binary systems. These simulations evolve the secondary stars, post accretion from an asymptotic giant-branch (AGB) donor, all the way to the RR Lyrae stage. The abundances of CEMP RR Lyrae stars can be used as direct probes of the nature of the donor star, such as its mass, and the amount of material accreted onto the secondary. We find that the majority of the sample of CEMP RR Lyrae stars is consistent with AGB donor masses of around 1.5–2.0 M_☉ and accretion masses of a few hundredths of a solar mass. Future high-resolution studies of these newly discovered CEMP RR Lyrae stars will help disentangle the effects of the proposed mixing processes that occur in such objects.

Large, complex, active regions may produce multiple flares within a certain period of one or two days. These flares could occur in the same location with similar morphologies, commonly referred to as "homologous flares." In 2011 September, active region NOAA 11283 produced a pair of homologous flares on the 6th and 7th, respectively. Both of them were white-light (WL) flares, as captured by the Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI) on board the Solar Dynamics Observatory in visible continuum at 6173 Å which is believed to originate from the deep solar atmosphere. We investigate the WL emission of these X-class flares with HMI's seeing-free imaging spectroscopy. The durations of impulsive peaks in the continuum are about 4 minutes. We compare the WL with hard X-ray (HXR) observations for the September 6 flare and find a good correlation between the continuum and HXR both spatially and temporally. In absence of RHESSI data during the second flare on September 7, the derivative of the GOES soft X-ray is used and also found to be well correlated temporally with the continuum. We measure the contrast enhancements, characteristic sizes, and HXR fluxes of the twin flares, which are similar for both flares, indicating analogous triggering and heating processes. However, the September 7 flare was associated with conspicuous sunquake signals whereas no seismic wave was detected during the flare on September 6. Therefore, this comparison suggests that the particle bombardment may not play a dominant role in producing the sunquake events studied in this paper.

We report on two regularly rotating galaxies at redshift z ≈ 2, using high-resolution spectra of the bright [C ii] 158 μm emission line from the HIFI instrument on the Herschel Space Observatory. Both SDSS090122.37+181432.3 ("S0901") and SDSSJ120602.09+514229.5 ("the Clone") are strongly lensed and show the double-horned line profile that is typical of rotating gas disks. Using a parametric disk model to fit the emission line profiles, we find that S0901 has a rotation speed of vsin (i) ≈ 120 ± 7 km s⁻¹ and a gas velocity dispersion of σ_g < 23 km s⁻¹ (1σ). The best-fitting model for the Clone is a rotationally supported disk having vsin (i) ≈ 79 ± 11 km s⁻¹ and σ_g ≲ 4 km s⁻¹ (1σ). However, the Clone is also consistent with a family of dispersion-dominated models having σ_g = 92 ± 20 km s⁻¹. Our results showcase the potential of the [C ii] line as a kinematic probe of high-redshift galaxy dynamics: [C ii] is bright, accessible to heterodyne receivers with exquisite velocity resolution, and traces dense star-forming interstellar gas. Future [C ii] line observations with ALMA would offer the further advantage of spatial resolution, allowing a clearer separation between rotation and velocity dispersion.

We study the far-infrared properties of 498 Lyα emitters (LAEs) at z = 2.8, 3.1, and 4.5 in the Extended Chandra Deep Field-South, using 250, 350, and 500 μm data from the Herschel Multi-tiered Extragalactic Survey and 870 μm data from the LABOCA ECDFS Submillimeter Survey. None of the 126, 280, or 92 LAEs at z = 2.8, 3.1, and 4.5, respectively, are individually detected in the far-infrared data. We use stacking to probe the average emission to deeper flux limits, reaching 1σ depths of ∼0.1 to 0.4 mJy. The LAEs are also undetected at ⩾3σ in the stacks, although a 2.5σ signal is observed at 870 μm for the z = 2.8 sources. We consider a wide range of far-infrared spectral energy distributions (SEDs), including an M82 and an Sd galaxy template, to determine upper limits on the far-infrared luminosities and far-infrared-derived star formation rates of the LAEs. These star formation rates are then combined with those inferred from the Lyα and UV emission to determine lower limits on the LAEs' Lyα escape fraction (f_esc(Lyα)). For the Sd SED template, the inferred LAEs f_esc(Lyα) are ≳ 30% (1σ) at z = 2.8, 3.1, and 4.5, which are all significantly higher than the global f_esc(Lyα) at these redshifts. Thus, if the LAEs f_esc(Lyα) follows the global evolution, then they have warmer far-infrared SEDs than the Sd galaxy template. The average and M82 SEDs produce lower limits on the LAE f_esc(Lyα) of ∼10%–20% (1σ), all of which are slightly higher than the global evolution of f_esc(Lyα), but consistent with it at the 2σ–3σ level.

We study the s-process abundances (A ≳ 90) at the epoch of the solar system formation. Asymptotic giant branch yields are computed with an updated neutron capture network and updated initial solar abundances. We confirm our previous results obtained with a Galactic chemical evolution (GCE) model: (1) as suggested by the s-process spread observed in disk stars and in presolar meteoritic SiC grains, a weighted average of s-process strengths is needed to reproduce the solar s distribution of isotopes with A > 130; and (2) an additional contribution (of about 25%) is required in order to represent the solar s-process abundances of isotopes from A = 90 to 130. Furthermore, we investigate the effect of different internal structures of the ¹³C pocket, which may affect the efficiency of the ¹³C(α, n)¹⁶O reaction, the major neutron source of the s process. First, keeping the same ¹³C profile adopted so far, we modify by a factor of two the mass involved in the pocket; second, we assume a flat ¹³C profile in the pocket, and we test again the effects of the variation of the mass of the pocket. We find that GCE s predictions at the epoch of the solar system formation marginally depend on the size and shape of the ¹³C pocket once a different weighted range of ¹³C-pocket strengths is assumed. We obtain that, independently of the internal structure of the ¹³C pocket, the missing solar system s-process contribution in the range from A = 90 to 130 remains essentially the same.

We present observations of a confined partial eruption of a filament on 2012 August 4, which restores its initial shape within ≈2 hr after eruption. From the Global Oscillation Network Group Hα observations, we find that the filament plasma turns into dynamic motion at around 11:20 UT from the middle part of the filament toward the northwest direction with an average speed of ≈105 km s⁻¹. A little brightening underneath the filament possibly shows the signature of low-altitude reconnection below the filament eruptive part. In Solar Dynamics Observatory/Atmospheric Imaging Assembly 171 Å images, we observe an activation of right-handed helically twisted magnetic flux rope that contains the filament material and confines it during its dynamical motion. The motion of cool filament plasma stops after traveling a distance of ≈215 Mm toward the northwest from the point of eruption. The plasma moves partly toward the right foot point of the flux rope, while most of the plasma returns after 12:20 UT toward the left foot point with an average speed of ≈60 km s⁻¹ to reform the filament within the same stable magnetic structure. On the basis of the filament internal fine structure and its position relative to the photospheric magnetic fields, we find filament chirality to be sinistral, while the activated enveloping flux rope shows a clear right-handed twist. Thus, this dynamic event is an apparent example of one-to-one correspondence between the filament chirality (sinistral) and the enveloping flux rope helicity (positive). From the coronal magnetic field decay index, n, calculation near the flux rope axis, it is evident that the whole filament axis lies within the domain of stability (i.e., n < 1), which provides the filament stability despite strong disturbances at its eastern foot point.

We modify the NonLinear Guiding Center theory for perpendicular diffusion by replacing the spectral amplitude of the two-component model of magnetic turbulence with that of the two-dimensional model (following Shalchi), and replacing the constant a², which indicates the degree particles following the magnetic field line, with the variable a'² as a function of the magnetic turbulence. We combine the modified model with the NonLinear PArallel diffusion theory to solve perpendicular and parallel diffusion coefficients simultaneously. It is shown that the new model agrees better with simulations. Furthermore, we fit the numerical results of the new model with polynomials, so that the parallel and perpendicular diffusion coefficients can be calculated directly without iteration of integrations, and many numerical calculations can be reduced.

We perform a quantitative analysis of the solar composition problem by using a statistical approach that allows us to combine the information provided by helioseismic and solar neutrino data in an effective way. We include in our analysis the helioseismic determinations of the surface helium abundance and of the depth of the convective envelope, the measurements of the ⁷Be and ⁸B neutrino fluxes, and the sound speed profile inferred from helioseismic frequencies. We provide all the ingredients to describe how these quantities depend on the solar surface composition, different from the initial and internal composition due to the effects of diffusion and nuclear reactions, and to evaluate the (correlated) uncertainties in solar model predictions. We include error sources that are not traditionally considered such as those from inversion of helioseismic data. We, then, apply the proposed approach to infer the chemical composition of the Sun. Our result is that the opacity profile of the Sun is well constrained by the solar observational properties. In the context of a two-parameter analysis in which elements are grouped as volatiles (i.e., C, N, O, and Ne) and refractories (i.e., Mg, Si, S, and Fe), the optimal surface composition is found by increasing the abundance of volatiles by (45 ± 4)% and that of refractories by (19 ± 3)% with respect to the values provided by Asplund et al. (2009, ARA&A, 47, 481). This corresponds to the abundances ε_O = 8.85 ± 0.01 and ε_Fe = 7.52 ± 0.01, which are consistent at the ∼1σ level with those provided by Grevesse & Sauval (1998, SSRv, 85, 161). As an additional result of our analysis, we show that the best fit to the observational data is obtained with values of input parameters of the standard solar models (radiative opacities, gravitational settling rate, and the astrophysical factors S₃₄ and S₁₇) that differ at the ∼1σ level from those presently adopted.

Despite years of high accuracy observations, none of the available theoretical techniques has yet allowed the confirmation of a moon beyond the solar system. Methods are currently limited to masses about an order of magnitude higher than the mass of any moon in the solar system. I here present a new method sensitive to exomoons similar to the known moons. Due to the projection of transiting exomoon orbits onto the celestial plane, satellites appear more often at larger separations from their planet. After about a dozen randomly sampled observations, a photometric orbital sampling effect (OSE) starts to appear in the phase-folded transit light curve, indicative of the moons' radii and planetary distances. Two additional outcomes of the OSE emerge in the planet's transit timing variations (TTV-OSE) and transit duration variations (TDV-OSE), both of which permit measurements of a moon's mass. The OSE is the first effect that permits characterization of multi-satellite systems. I derive and apply analytical OSE descriptions to simulated transit observations of the Kepler space telescope assuming white noise only. Moons as small as Ganymede may be detectable in the available data, with M stars being their most promising hosts. Exomoons with the ten-fold mass of Ganymede and a similar composition (about 0.86 Earth radii in radius) can most likely be found in the available Kepler data of K stars, including moons in the stellar habitable zone. A future survey with Kepler-class photometry, such as Plato 2.0, and a permanent monitoring of a single field of view over five years or more will very likely discover extrasolar moons via their OSEs.

We present the detections of 18 solar flares detected in high-energy γ-rays (above 100 MeV) with the Fermi Large Area Telescope (LAT) during its first 4 yr of operation. This work suggests that particle acceleration up to very high energies in solar flares is more common than previously thought, occurring even in modest flares, and for longer durations. Interestingly, all these flares are associated with fairly fast coronal mass ejections (CMEs). We then describe the detailed temporal, spatial, and spectral characteristics of the first two long-lasting events: the 2011 March 7 flare, a moderate (M3.7) impulsive flare followed by slowly varying γ-ray emission over 13 hr, and the 2011 June 7 M2.5 flare, which was followed by γ-ray emission lasting for 2 hr. We compare the Fermi LAT data with X-ray and proton data measurements from GOES and RHESSI. We argue that the γ-rays are more likely produced through pion decay than electron bremsstrahlung, and we find that the energy spectrum of the proton distribution softens during the extended emission of the 2011 March 7 flare. This would disfavor a trapping scenario for particles accelerated during the impulsive phase of the flare and point to a continuous acceleration process at play for the duration of the flares. CME shocks are known for accelerating the solar energetic particles (SEPs) observed in situ on similar timescales, but it might be challenging to explain the production of γ-rays at the surface of the Sun while the CME is halfway to the Earth. A stochastic turbulence acceleration process occurring in the solar corona is another likely scenario. Detailed comparison of characteristics of SEPs and γ-ray-emitting particles for several flares will be helpful to distinguish between these two possibilities.

We search for variations in the disk of Centaurus A of the emission from atomic fine structure lines using Herschel PACS and SPIRE spectroscopy. In particular, we observe the [C ii](158 μm), [N ii](122 and 205 μm), [O i](63 and 145 μm), and [O iii](88 μm) lines, which all play an important role in cooling the gas in photo-ionized and photodissociation regions (PDRs). We determine that the ([C ii]+[O i]₆₃)/F_TIR line ratio, a proxy for the heating efficiency of the gas, shows no significant radial trend across the observed region, in contrast to observations of other nearby galaxies. We determine that 10%–20% of the observed [C ii] emission originates in ionized gas. Comparison between our observations and a PDR model shows that the strength of the far-ultraviolet radiation field, G₀, varies between 10^1.75 and 10^2.75 and the hydrogen nucleus density varies between 10^2.75 and 10^3.75 cm⁻³, with no significant radial trend in either property. In the context of the emission line properties of the grand-design spiral galaxy M51 and the elliptical galaxy NGC 4125, the gas in Cen A appears more characteristic of that in typical disk galaxies rather than elliptical galaxies.

We study star clusters in two fields in the nearby spiral galaxy M83 using broadband and narrowband optical imaging taken with the Wide Field Camera 3 onboard the Hubble Space Telescope. We present results on the basis of several different catalogs of star clusters in inner and outer fields, and we conclude that different methods of selection do not strongly affect the results, particularly for clusters older than ≈10 Myr. The age distributions can be described by a power law, dN/dτ∝τ^γ, with γ ≈ −0.84  ±  0.12 in the inner field, and γ ≈ −0.48 ± 0.12 in the outer field for τ ≳ 10 Myr. We bracket the difference, Δγ, between the two fields to be in the 0.18 to 0.36 range, based on estimates of the relative star-formation histories. The mass functions can also be described by a power law, dN/dM∝M^β, with β ≈ −1.98  ±  0.14 and β ≈ −2.34 ± 0.26 in the inner and outer fields, respectively. We conclude that the shapes of the mass and age distributions of the clusters in the two fields are similar, as predicted by the quasi-universal model. Any differences between the two fields are at the ≈2σ–3σ (≈1σ–2σ) level for the age (mass) distributions. Therefore, any dependence of these distributions on the local environment is probably weak. We compare the shapes of the distributions with those predicted by two popular cluster disruption models. We find that both show evidence that the clusters are disrupted at a rate that is approximately independent of their mass. We compare the shapes of the distributions with those predicted by two popular cluster disruption models, and find that both show evidence that the clusters are disrupted at a rate that is approximately independent of their mass, and that observational results do not support the earlier disruption of lower-mass clusters relative to their higher-mass counterparts.

Current theories predict relativistic hadronic particle populations in clusters of galaxies in addition to the already observed relativistic leptons. In these scenarios hadronic interactions give rise to neutral pions which decay into γ rays that are potentially observable with the Large Area Telescope (LAT) on board the Fermi space telescope. We present a joint likelihood analysis searching for spatially extended γ-ray emission at the locations of 50 galaxy clusters in four years of Fermi-LAT data under the assumption of the universal cosmic-ray (CR) model proposed by Pinzke & Pfrommer. We find an excess at a significance of 2.7σ, which upon closer inspection, however, is correlated to individual excess emission toward three galaxy clusters: A400, A1367, and A3112. We discuss these cases in detail and conservatively attribute the emission to unmodeled background systems (for example, radio galaxies within the clusters).Through the combined analysis of 50 clusters, we exclude hadronic injection efficiencies in simple hadronic models above 21% and establish limits on the CR to thermal pressure ratio within the virial radius, R₂₀₀, to be below 1.25%–1.4% depending on the morphological classification. In addition, we derive new limits on the γ-ray flux from individual clusters in our sample.

We reveal the highly structured nature of the Milky Way (MW) stellar halo within the footprint of the Pan-Andromeda Archaeological Survey (PAndAS) photometric survey from blue main sequence (MS) and MS turn-off stars. We map no fewer than five stellar structures within a heliocentric range of ∼5–30 kpc. Some of these are known (the Monoceros Ring, the Pisces/Triangulum globular cluster stream), but we also uncover three well-defined stellar structures that could be, at least partly, responsible for the so-called Triangulum/Andromeda and Triangulum/Andromeda 2 features. In particular, we trace a new faint stellar stream located at a heliocentric distance of ∼17 kpc. With a surface brightness of Σ_V  ∼  32–32.5 mag arcsec⁻², it follows an orbit that is almost parallel to the Galactic plane north of M31 and has so far eluded surveys of the MW halo as these tend to steer away from regions dominated by the Galactic disk. Investigating our follow-up spectroscopic observations of PAndAS, we serendipitously uncover a radial velocity signature from stars that have colors and magnitudes compatible with the stream. From the velocity of eight likely member stars, we show that this stellar structure is dynamically cold, with an unresolved velocity dispersion that is lower than 7.1 km s⁻¹ at the 90% confidence level. Along with the width of the stream (300–650 pc), its dynamics point to a dwarf-galaxy-accretion origin. The numerous stellar structures we can map in the MW stellar halo between 5 and 30 kpc and their varying morphology is a testament to the complex nature of the stellar halo at these intermediate distances.

We present an application of a statistical tool known as sensitivity analysis to characterize the relationship between input parameters and observational predictions of semi-analytic models of galaxy formation coupled to cosmological N-body simulations. We show how a sensitivity analysis can be performed on our chemo-dynamical model, ChemTreeN, to characterize and quantify its relationship between model input parameters and predicted observable properties. The result of this analysis provides the user with information about which parameters are most important and most likely to affect the prediction of a given observable. It can also be used to simplify models by identifying input parameters that have no effect on the outputs (i.e., observational predictions) of interest. Conversely, sensitivity analysis allows us to identify what model parameters can be most efficiently constrained by the given observational data set. We have applied this technique to real observational data sets associated with the Milky Way, such as the luminosity function of the dwarf satellites. The results from the sensitivity analysis are used to train specific model emulators of ChemTreeN, only involving the most relevant input parameters. This allowed us to efficiently explore the input parameter space. A statistical comparison of model outputs and real observables is used to obtain a "best-fitting" parameter set. We consider different Milky-Way-like dark matter halos to account for the dependence of the best-fitting parameter selection process on the underlying merger history of the models. For all formation histories considered, running ChemTreeN with best-fitting parameters produced luminosity functions that tightly fit their observed counterpart. However, only one of the resulting stellar halo models was able to reproduce the observed stellar halo mass within 40 kpc of the Galactic center. On the basis of this analysis, it is possible to disregard certain models, and their corresponding merger histories, as good representations of the underlying merger history of the Milky Way.

We calculate growth rates for nonaxisymmetric instabilities including the magnetorotational instability (MRI) throughout the Sun. We first derive a dispersion relation for nonaxisymmetric instability including the effects of shear, convective buoyancy, and three diffusivities (thermal conductivity, resistivity, and viscosity). We then use a solar model evolved with the stellar evolution code MESA and angular velocity profiles determined by Global Oscillations Network Group helioseismology to determine the unstable modes present at each location in the Sun and the associated growth rates. The overall instability has unstable modes throughout the convection zone and also slightly below it at middle and high latitudes. It contains three classes of modes: large-scale hydrodynamic convective modes, large-scale hydrodynamic shear modes, and small-scale magnetohydrodynamic shear modes, which may be properly called MRI modes. While large-scale convective modes are the most rapidly growing modes in most of the convective zone, MRI modes are important in both stably stratified and convectively unstable locations near the tachocline at colatitudes θ < 53°. Nonaxisymmetric MRI modes grow faster than the corresponding axisymmetric modes; for some poloidal magnetic fields, the nonaxisymmetric MRI growth rates are similar to the angular rotation frequency Ω, while axisymmetric modes are stabilized. We briefly discuss the saturation of the field produced by MRI modes, finding that the implied field at the base of the convective zone in the Sun is comparable to that derived based on dynamos active in the tachocline and that the saturation of field resulting from the MRI may be of importance even in the upper convection zone.

The recent solar minimum and rise phase of solar cycle 24 have been unlike any period since the early 1900s. This article examines some of the properties of sunspot umbrae over the last 17 yr with three different instruments on the ground and in space: MDI, HMI and BABO. The distribution of magnetic fields and their evolution over time is shown and reveals that the field distribution in cycle 24 is fundamentally different from that in cycle 23. The annual average umbral magnetic field is then examined for the 17 yr observation period and shows a small decrease of 375 G in sunspot magnetic fields over the period 1996–2013, but the mean intensity of sunspot umbrae does not vary significantly over this time. A possible issue with sample sizes in a previous study is then explored to explain disagreements in data from two of the source instruments. All three instruments show that the relationship between umbral magnetic fields and umbral intensity agrees with past studies in that the umbral intensity decreases as the field strength increases. This apparent contradiction can be explained by the range of magnetic field values measured for a given umbral intensity being larger than the measured 375 G change in umbral field strength over time.

The dynamics of dry atmospheric general circulation model simulations forced by seasonally varying Newtonian relaxation are explored over a wide range of two control parameters and are compared with the large-scale circulation of Earth, Mars, and Titan in their relevant parameter regimes. Of the parameters that govern the behavior of the system, the thermal Rossby number (Ro) has previously been found to be important in governing the spontaneous transition from an Earth-like climatology of winds to a superrotating one with prograde equatorial winds, in the absence of a seasonal cycle. This case is somewhat unrealistic as it applies only if the planet has zero obliquity or if surface thermal inertia is very large. While Venus has nearly vanishing obliquity, Earth, Mars, and Titan (Saturn) all have obliquities of ∼25° and varying degrees of seasonality due to their differing thermal inertias and orbital periods. Motivated by this, we introduce a time-dependent Newtonian cooling to drive a seasonal cycle using idealized model forcing, and we define a second control parameter that mimics non-dimensional thermal inertia of planetary surfaces. We then perform and analyze simulations across the parameter range bracketed by Earth-like and Titan-like regimes, assess the impact on the spontaneous transition to superrotation, and compare Earth, Mars, and Titan to the model simulations in the relevant parameter regime. We find that a large seasonal cycle (small thermal inertia) prevents model atmospheres with large thermal Rossby numbers from developing superrotation by the influences of (1) cross-equatorial momentum advection by the Hadley circulation and (2) hemispherically asymmetric zonal-mean zonal winds that suppress instabilities leading to equatorial momentum convergence. We also demonstrate that baroclinic instabilities must be sufficiently weak to allow superrotation to develop. In the relevant parameter regimes, our seasonal model simulations compare favorably to large-scale, seasonal phenomena observed on Earth and Mars. In the Titan-like regime the seasonal cycle in our model acts to prevent superrotation from developing, and it is necessary to increase the value of a third parameter—the atmospheric Newtonian cooling time—to achieve a superrotating climatology.

We present a catalog of true edge-on disk galaxies automatically selected from the Seventh Data Release of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS). A visual inspection of the g, r, and i images of about 15,000 galaxies allowed us to split the initial sample of edge-on galaxy candidates into 4768 (31.8% of the initial sample) genuine edge-on galaxies, 8350 (55.7%) non-edge-on galaxies, and 1865 (12.5%) edge-on galaxies not suitable for simple automatic analysis because these objects either show signs of interaction and warps, or nearby bright stars project on it. We added more candidate galaxies from RFGC, EFIGI, RC3, and Galaxy Zoo catalogs found in the SDSS footprints. Our final sample consists of 5747 genuine edge-on galaxies. We estimate the structural parameters of the stellar disks (the stellar disk thickness, radial scale length, and central surface brightness) in the galaxies by analyzing photometric profiles in each of the g, r, and i images. We also perform simplified three-dimensional modeling of the light distribution in the stellar disks of edge-on galaxies from our sample. Our large sample is intended to be used for studying scaling relations in the stellar disks and bulges and for estimating parameters of the thick disks in different types of galaxies via the image stacking. In this paper, we present the sample selection procedure and general description of the sample.

We report high angular resolution Hubble Space Telescope observations of 10 compact planetary nebulae (PNs). Many interesting internal structures, including multipolar lobes, arcs, two-dimensional rings, tori, and halos, are revealed for the first time. These results suggest that multipolar structures are common among PNs, and these structures develop early in their evolution. From three-dimensional geometric models, we have determined the intrinsic dimensions of the lobes. Assuming the lobes are the result of interactions between later-developed fast winds and previously ejected asymptotic giant branch winds, the geometric structures of these PNs suggest that there are multiple phases of fast winds separated by temporal variations and/or directional changes. A scenario of evolution from lobe-dominated to cavity-dominated stages is presented. The results reported here will provide serious constraints on any dynamical models of PNs.

The magnetic fields associated with young stellar objects are expected to have an hour-glass geometry, i.e., the magnetic field lines are pinched as they thread the equatorial plane surrounding the forming star but merge smoothly onto a background field at large distances. With this field configuration, incoming cosmic rays experience both a funneling effect that acts to enhance the flux impinging on the circumstellar disk and a magnetic mirroring effect that acts to reduce that flux. To leading order, these effects nearly cancel out for simple underlying magnetic field structures. However, the environments surrounding young stellar objects are expected to be highly turbulent. This paper shows how the presence of magnetic field fluctuations affects the process of magnetic mirroring, and thereby changes the flux of cosmic rays striking circumstellar disks. Turbulence has two principle effects: (1) the (single) location of the magnetic mirror point found in the absence of turbulence is replaced with a wide distribution of values. (2) The median of the mirror point distribution moves outward for sufficiently large fluctuation amplitudes (roughly when δB/B₀ > 0.2 at the location of the turbulence-free mirror point); the distribution becomes significantly non-Gaussian in this regime as well. These results may have significant consequences for the ionization fraction of the disk, which in turn dictates the efficiency with which disk material can accrete onto the central object. A similar reduction in cosmic ray flux can occur during the earlier protostellar stages; the decrease in ionization can help alleviate the magnetic braking problem that inhibits disk formation.

We report the discovery of the first hot Jupiter in the Hyades open cluster. HD 285507b orbits a V = 10.47 K4.5V dwarf (M_* = 0.734 M_☉; R_* = 0.656 R_☉) in a slightly eccentric ($e=0.086^{+0.018}_{-0.019}$) orbit with a period of $6.0881^{+0.0019}_{-0.0018}$ days. The induced stellar radial velocity corresponds to a minimum companion mass of M_Psin i = 0.917 ± 0.033 M_Jup. Line bisector spans and stellar activity measures show no correlation with orbital phase, and the radial velocity amplitude is independent of wavelength, supporting the conclusion that the variations are caused by a planetary companion. Follow-up photometry indicates with high confidence that the planet does not transit. HD 285507b joins a small but growing list of planets in open clusters, and its existence lends support to a planet formation scenario in which a high stellar space density does not inhibit giant planet formation and migration. We calculate the circularization timescale for HD 285507b to be larger than the age of the Hyades, which may indicate that this planet's non-zero eccentricity is the result of migration via interactions with a third body. We also demonstrate a significant difference between the eccentricity distributions of hot Jupiters that have had time to tidally circularize and those that have not, which we interpret as evidence against Type II migration in the final stages of hot Jupiter formation. Finally, the dependence of the circularization timescale on the planetary tidal quality factor, Q_P, allows us to constrain the average value for hot Jupiters to be $\log {Q_{\rm P}} = 6.14^{+0.41}_{-0.25}$.

Using a numerical method, we examine the radiation spectra from relativistic electrons moving in Langmuir turbulence, which are expected to exist in high energy astrophysical objects. The spectral shape is characterized by the spatial scale λ, field strength σ, and frequency of the Langmuir waves, and in terms of frequency they are represented by ω₀ = 2πc/λ, ω_st = eσ/mc, and ω_p, respectively. We normalize ω_st and ω_p by ω₀ as a ≡ ω_st/ω₀ and b ≡ ω_p/ω₀, and examine the spectral shape in the a−b plane. An earlier study based on the diffusive radiation in Langmuir turbulence (DRL) theory by Fleishman & Toptygin showed that the typical frequency is γ²ω_p and that the low frequency spectrum behaves as F_ω∝ω¹ for b > 1 irrespective of a. Here, we adopt the first principle numerical approach to obtain the radiation spectra in more detail. We generate Langmuir turbulence by superposing Fourier modes, injecting monoenergetic electrons, solving the equation of motion, and calculating the radiation spectra using a Lienard–Wiechert potential. We find different features from the DRL theory for a > b > 1. The peak frequency turns out to be γ²ω_st, which is higher than the γ²ω_p predicted by the DRL theory, and the spectral index of the low frequency region is not 1 but 1/3. This is because the typical deflection angle of electrons is larger than the angle of the beaming cone ∼1/γ. We call the radiation for this case "wiggler radiation in Langmuir turbulence."

Among Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia), a class of overluminous objects exist whose ejecta mass is inferred to be larger than the canonical Chandrasekhar mass. We present and discuss the UV/optical photometric light curves, colors, absolute magnitudes, and spectra of three candidate Super-Chandrasekhar mass SNe—2009dc, 2011aa, and 2012dn—observed with the Swift Ultraviolet/Optical Telescope. The light curves are at the broad end for SNe Ia, with the light curves of SN 2011aa being among the broadest ever observed. We find all three to have very blue colors which may provide a means of excluding these overluminous SNe from cosmological analysis, though there is some overlap with the bluest of "normal" SNe Ia. All three are overluminous in their UV absolute magnitudes compared to normal and broad SNe Ia, but SNe 2011aa and 2012dn are not optically overluminous compared to normal SNe Ia. The integrated luminosity curves of SNe 2011aa and 2012dn in the UVOT range (1600–6000 Å) are only half as bright as SN 2009dc, implying a smaller ⁵⁶Ni yield. While it is not enough to strongly affect the bolometric flux, the early time mid-UV flux makes a significant contribution at early times. The strong spectral features in the mid-UV spectra of SNe 2009dc and 2012dn suggest a higher temperature and lower opacity to be the cause of the UV excess rather than a hot, smooth blackbody from shock interaction. Further work is needed to determine the ejecta and ⁵⁶Ni masses of SNe 2011aa and 2012dn and to fully explain their high UV luminosities.

We use A-type stars selected from Sloan Digital Sky Survey data release 9 photometry to measure the outer slope of the Milky Way stellar halo density profile beyond 50 kpc. A likelihood-based analysis is employed that models the ugr photometry distribution of blue horizontal branch and blue straggler stars. In the magnitude range 18.5 < g < 20.5, these stellar populations span a heliocentric distance range of: 10 ≲ D_BS/kpc ≲ 75, 40 ≲ D_BHB/kpc ≲ 100. Contributions from contaminants, such as QSOs, and the effect of photometric uncertainties, are also included in our modeling procedure. We find evidence for a very steep outer halo profile, with power-law index α ∼ 6 beyond Galactocentric radii r = 50 kpc, and even steeper slopes favored (α ∼ 6–10) at larger radii. This result holds true when stars belonging to known overdensities, such as the Sagittarius stream, are included or excluded. We show that, by comparison to numerical simulations, stellar halos with shallower slopes at large distances tend to have more recent accretion activity. Thus, it is likely that the Milky Way has undergone a relatively quiet accretion history over the past several gigayears. Our measurement of the outer stellar halo profile may have important implications for dynamical mass models of the Milky Way, where the tracer density profile is strongly degenerate with total mass estimates.

We analyze the kinematics of thick disk and halo stars observed by the Large Sky Area Multi-Object Fiber Spectroscopic Telescope. We have constructed a sample of 7993 F, G, and K nearby main-sequence stars (d < 2 kpc) with estimates of position (x, y, z) and space velocity (U, V, W) based on color and proper motion from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey DR9 catalog. Three "phase-space overdensities" are identified in (V, $\sqrt{U^{2}+2V^{2}}$) with significance levels of σ > 3. Two of them (the Hyades–Pleiades stream and the Arcturus–AF06 stream) have been identified previously. We also find evidence for a new stream (centered at V ∼ −180 km s⁻¹) in the halo. The formation mechanisms of these three streams are analyzed. Our results support the hypothesis that the Arcturus–AF06 stream and the new stream originated from the debris of a disrupted satellite, while the Hyades–Pleiades stream has a dynamical origin.

The Total Irradiance Monitor (TIM) from NASA's SOlar Radiation and Climate Experiment can detect changes in the total solar irradiance (TSI) to a precision of 2 ppm, allowing observations of variations due to the largest X-class solar flares for the first time. Presented here is a robust algorithm for determining the radiative output in the TIM TSI measurements, in both the impulsive and gradual phases, for the four solar flares presented in Woods et al., as well as an additional flare measured on 2006 December 6. The radiative outputs for both phases of these five flares are then compared to the vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) irradiance output from the Flare Irradiance Spectral Model (FISM) in order to derive an empirical relationship between the FISM VUV model and the TIM TSI data output to estimate the TSI radiative output for eight other X-class flares. This model provides the basis for the bolometric energy estimates for the solar flares analyzed in the Emslie et al. study.

Recent in-situ determinations of the temporal evolution of the charge state distribution in the fast and slow solar wind have shown a general decrease in the degree of ionization of all the elements in the solar wind along solar cycles 23 and 24. Such a decrease has been interpreted as a cooling of the solar corona which occurred during the decline and minimum phase of solar cycle 23 from 2000 to 2010. In the present work, we investigate whether spectroscopic determinations of the temperature of the quiescent streamers show signatures of coronal plasma cooling during cycles 23 and 24. We measure the coronal electron density and thermal structure at the base of 60 quiescent streamers observed from 1996 to 2013 by SOHO/SUMER and Hinode/EIS and find that both quantities do now show any significant dependence on the solar cycle. We argue that if the slow solar wind is accelerated from the solar photosphere or chromosphere, the measured decrease in the in-situ wind charge state distribution might be due to an increased efficiency in the wind acceleration mechanism at low altitudes. If the slow wind originates from the corona, a combination of density and wind acceleration changes may be responsible for the in-situ results.

Angular power spectra are calculated and presented for the entirety of the Canadian Galactic Plane Survey polarization data set at 1.4 GHz covering an area of 1060 deg². The data analyzed are a combination of data from the 100 m Effelsberg Telescope, the 26 m Telescope at the Dominion Radio Astrophysical Observatory, and the Synthesis Telescope at the Dominion Radio Astrophysical Observatory, allowing all scales to be sampled down to arcminute resolution. The resulting power spectra cover multipoles from ℓ ≈ 60 to ℓ ≈ 10⁴ and display both a power-law component at low multipoles and a flattening at high multipoles from point sources. We fit the power spectrum with a model that accounts for these components and instrumental effects. The resulting power-law indices are found to have a mode of 2.3, similar to previous results. However, there are significant regional variations in the index, defying attempts to characterize the emission with a single value. The power-law index is found to increase away from the Galactic plane. A transition from small-scale to large-scale structure is evident at b = 9°, associated with the disk-halo transition in a 15° region around l = 108°. Localized variations in the index are found toward H ii regions and supernova remnants, but the interpretation of these variations is inconclusive. The power in the polarized emission is anticorrelated with bright thermal emission (traced by Hα emission) indicating that the thermal emission depolarizes background synchrotron emission.

Almost exactly 100 yr after the original discovery of cosmic rays, the V1 spacecraft has observed, for the first time, the local interstellar medium energy spectra of cosmic ray H, He, C/O nuclei at nonrelativistic kinetic energies, after leaving the heliosphere modulation region on 2012 August 25. We explain these observations by modeling the propagation of these particles in the local Galactic environment with an updated steady-state spatial diffusion model including all particle momentum losses with the local interstellar gas (Coulomb/ionization, pion production, adiabatic deceleration, and fragmentation interactions). Excellent agreement with the V1 cosmic ray H observations is obtained if the solar system resides within a spatially homogeneous layer of distributed cosmic ray sources injecting the same momentum power law ∝p^−s with s = 2.24 ± 0.12. The best fit to the V1 H observations also provides an estimate of the characteristic break kinetic energy T_C = 116 ± 27 MeV, representing the transition from ionization/Coulomb energy losses at low energies to pion production and adiabatic deceleration losses in a Galactic wind at high energies. As the determined value is substantially smaller than 217 MeV in the absence of adiabatic deceleration, our results prove the existence of a Galactic wind in the local Galactic environment.

We have adapted Coupled Escape Probability, a new exact method of solving radiative transfer problems, for use in asymmetrical spherical situations. Our model is intended specifically for use in modeling optically thick cometary comae, although not limited to such use. This method enables the accurate modeling of comets' spectra even in the potentially optically thick regions nearest the nucleus, such as those seen in Deep Impact observations of 9P/Tempel 1 and EPOXI observations of 103P/Hartley 2.

We analytically calculate the marginally stable surface density profile for the rotational instability of protoplanetary disks. The derived profile can be utilized for considering the region in a rotating disk where radial pressure gradient force is comparable to the gravitational force, such as an inner edge, steep gaps or bumps, and an outer region of the disk. In this paper, we particularly focus on the rotational instability in the outer region of disks. We find that a protoplanetary disk with a surface density profile of similarity solution becomes rotationally unstable at a certain radius, depending on its temperature profile and a mass of the central star. If the temperature is relatively low and the mass of the central star is high, disks have rotationally stable similarity profiles. Otherwise, deviation from the similarity profiles of surface density could be observable, using facilities with high sensitivity, such as ALMA.

We report the detection of ubiquitous powerful nuclear outflows in massive (⩾10¹¹ M_☉) z ∼ 2 star-forming galaxies (SFGs), which are plausibly driven by an active galactic nucleus (AGN). The sample consists of the eight most massive SFGs from our SINS/zC-SINF survey of galaxy kinematics with the imaging spectrometer SINFONI, six of which have sensitive high-resolution adaptive optics-assisted observations. All of the objects are disks hosting a significant stellar bulge. The spectra in their central regions exhibit a broad component in Hα and forbidden [N ii] and [S ii] line emission, with typical velocity FWHM ∼ 1500 km s⁻¹, [N ii]/Hα ratio ≈ 0.6, and intrinsic extent of 2–3 kpc. These properties are consistent with warm ionized gas outflows associated with Type 2 AGN, the presence of which is confirmed via independent diagnostics in half the galaxies. The data imply a median ionized gas mass outflow rate of ∼60 M_☉ yr⁻¹ and mass loading of ∼3. At larger radii, a weaker broad component is detected but with lower FWHM ∼485 km s⁻¹ and [N ii]/Hα ≈ 0.35, characteristic for star formation-driven outflows as found in the lower-mass SINS/zC-SINF galaxies. The high inferred mass outflow rates and frequent occurrence suggest that the nuclear outflows efficiently expel gas out of the centers of the galaxies with high duty cycles and may thus contribute to the process of star formation quenching in massive galaxies. Larger samples at high masses will be crucial in confirming the importance and energetics of the nuclear outflow phenomenon and its connection to AGN activity and bulge growth.

Using the data obtained previously from Fabry–Perot interferometry, we study the orbital characteristics of the interacting pair of galaxies KPG 302 with the aim to estimate a possible interaction history, the conditions necessary for the spiral arm formation, and initial satellite mass. We found by performing N-body/smoothed particle hydrodynamics simulations of the interaction that a single passage can produce a grand design spiral pattern in less than 1 Gyr. Although we reproduce most of the features with the single passage, the required satellite to host mass ratio should be ∼1:5, which is not confirmed by the dynamical mass estimate made from the measured rotation curve. We conclude that a more realistic interaction scenario would require several passages in order to explain the mass ratio discrepancy.

We investigate the X-ray properties of three interacting luminous infrared galaxy systems. In one of these systems, IRAS 18329+5950, we resolve two separate sources. A second and third source, IRAS 19354+4559 and IRAS 20550+1656, have only a single X-ray source detected. We compare the observed emission to point-spread function (PSF) profiles and determine that they are all consistent with the PSF, albeit with large uncertainties for some of our sources. We then model the spectra to determine soft (0.5–2 keV) and hard (2–10 keV) luminosities for the resolved sources and compare these to relationships found in the literature between infrared and X-ray luminosities for starburst galaxies. We obtain luminosities (0.5–10 keV) ranging from 1.7 to 7.3 × 10⁴¹ erg s⁻¹ for our systems. These X-ray luminosities are consistent with predictions for star-formation-dominated sources and thus are most likely due to starbursts, but we cannot conclusively rule out active galactic nuclei.

Slow neutron captures at A ≳ 85 are mainly guaranteed by the reaction ¹³C(α,n)¹⁶O in asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars, requiring proton injections from the envelope. These were so far assumed to involve a small mass (≲ 10⁻³ M_☉), but models with rotation suggest that in such tiny layers excessive ¹⁴N hampers s-processing. Furthermore, s-element abundances in galaxies require ¹³C-rich layers substantially extended in mass (≳ 4 × 10⁻³ M_☉). We therefore present new calculations aimed at clarifying those issues and at understanding whether the solar composition helps to constrain the ¹³C "pocket" extension. We show that: (1) mixing "from bottom to top" (as in magnetic buoyancy or other forced mechanisms) can form a ¹³C reservoir substantially larger than assumed so far, covering most of the He-rich layers; (2) on the basis of this idea, stellar models at a fixed metallicity reproduce the main s-component as accurately as before; and (3) they make nuclear contributions from unknown nucleosynthesis processes (LEPP) unnecessary, against common assumptions. These models also avoid problems of mixing at the envelope border and fulfil requirements from C-star luminosities. They yield a large production of nuclei below A = 100, so that ^86, 87Sr may be fully synthesized by AGB stars, while ⁸⁸Sr, ⁸⁹Y, and ⁹⁴Zr are contributed more efficiently than before. Finally, we suggest tests suitable for providing a final answer regarding the extension of the ¹³C pocket.

We present ALMA 880 μm continuum observations of 20 K- and M-type stars in the Upper Scorpius OB association (Upper Sco) that are surrounded by protoplanetary disks. These data are used to measure the dust content in disks around low-mass stars (0.1–1.6 M_☉) at a stellar age of 5–11 Myr. Thirteen sources were detected in the 880 μm dust continuum at ⩾3σ with inferred dust masses between 0.3 and 52 M_⊕. The dust masses tend to be higher around the more massive stars, but the significance is marginal in that the probability of no correlation is p ≈ 0.03. The evolution in the dust content in disks was assessed by comparing the Upper Sco observations with published continuum measurements of disks around ∼1–2 Myr stars in the Class II stage in the Taurus molecular cloud. While the dust masses in the Upper Sco disks are on average lower than in Taurus, any difference in the dust mass distributions is significant at less than 3σ. For stellar masses between 0.49 M_☉ and 1.6 M_☉, the mean dust mass in disks is lower in Upper Sco relative to Taurus by Δlog  M_dust = 0.44 ± 0.26.

Spectra for two-dimensional (2D) stars in the 1.5D approximation are created from synthetic spectra of one-dimensional (1D) non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (NLTE) spherical model atmospheres produced by the PHOENIX code. The 1.5D stars have the spatially averaged Rayleigh–Jeans flux of a K3–4 III star while varying the temperature difference between the two 1D component models (ΔT_1.5D) and the relative surface area covered. Synthetic observable quantities from the 1.5D stars are fitted with quantities from NLTE and local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) 1D models to assess the errors in inferred T_eff values from assuming horizontal homogeneity and LTE. Five different quantities are fit to determine the T_eff of the 1.5D stars: UBVRI photometric colors, absolute surface flux spectral energy distributions (SEDs), relative SEDs, continuum normalized spectra, and TiO band profiles. In all cases except the TiO band profiles, the inferred T_eff value increases with increasing ΔT_1.5D. In all cases, the inferred T_eff value from fitting 1D LTE quantities is higher than from fitting 1D NLTE quantities and is approximately constant as a function of ΔT_1.5D within each case. The difference between LTE and NLTE for the TiO bands is caused indirectly by the NLTE temperature structure of the upper atmosphere, as the bands are computed in LTE. We conclude that the difference between T_eff values derived from NLTE and LTE modeling is relatively insensitive to the degree of the horizontal inhomogeneity of the star being modeled and largely depends on the observable quantity being fit.

The chemistry in the diffuse interstellar medium (ISM) initiates the gradual increase of molecular complexity during the life cycle of matter. A key molecule that enables build-up of new molecular bonds and new molecules via proton donation is H$_3^+$. Its evolution is tightly related to molecular hydrogen and thought to be well understood. However, recent observations of ortho and para lines of H₂ and H$_3^+$ in the diffuse ISM showed a puzzling discrepancy in nuclear spin excitation temperatures and populations between these two key species. H$_3^+$, unlike H₂, seems to be out of thermal equilibrium, contrary to the predictions of modern astrochemical models. We conduct the first time-dependent modeling of the para-fractions of H₂ and H$_3^+$ in the diffuse ISM and compare our results to a set of line-of-sight observations, including new measurements presented in this study. We isolate a set of key reactions for H$_3^+$ and find that the destruction of the lowest rotational states of H$_3^+$ by dissociative recombination largely controls its ortho/para ratio. A plausible agreement with observations cannot be achieved unless a ratio larger than 1:5 for the destruction of (1, 1)- and (1, 0)-states of H$_3^+$ is assumed. Additionally, an increased cosmic-ray ionization rate to 10⁻¹⁵ s⁻¹ further improves the fit whereas variations of other individual physical parameters, such as density and chemical age, have only a minor effect on the predicted ortho/para ratios. Thus, our study calls for new laboratory measurements of the dissociative recombination rate and branching ratio of the key ion H$_{3}^{+}$ under interstellar conditions.

We investigate the type IV burst event observed by AMATERAS on 2011 June 7, and reveal that the main component of the burst was emitted from the plasmoid eruption identified in the EUV images of the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO)/AIA. We show that a slowly drifting narrowband structure (SDNS) appeared in the burst's spectra. Using statistical analysis, we reveal that the SDNS appeared for a duration of tens to hundreds of milliseconds and had a typical bandwidth of 3 MHz. To explain the mechanism generating the SDNS, we propose wave–wave coupling between Langmuir waves and whistler-mode chorus emissions generated in a post-flare loop, which were inferred from the similarities in the plasma environments of a post-flare loop and the equatorial region of Earth's inner magnetosphere. We assume that a chorus element with a rising tone is generated at the top of a post-flare loop. Using the magnetic field and plasma density models, we quantitatively estimate the expected duration of radio emissions generated from coupling between Langmuir waves and chorus emissions during their propagation in the post-flare loop, and we find that the observed duration and bandwidth properties of the SDNS are consistently explained by the proposed generation mechanism. While observations in the terrestrial magnetosphere show that the chorus emissions are a group of large-amplitude wave elements generated naturally and intermittently, the mechanism proposed in the present study can explain both the intermittency and the frequency drift in the observed spectra.

We present results from three-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic simulations of the emergence of a twisted convection zone flux tube into a pre-existing coronal dipole field. As in previous simulations, following the partial emergence of the sub-surface flux into the corona, a combination of vortical motions and internal magnetic reconnection forms a coronal flux rope. Then, in the simulations presented here, external reconnection between the emerging field and the pre-existing dipole coronal field allows further expansion of the coronal flux rope into the corona. After sufficient expansion, internal reconnection occurs beneath the coronal flux rope axis, and the flux rope erupts up to the top boundary of the simulation domain (∼36 Mm above the surface). We find that the presence of a pre-existing field, orientated in a direction to facilitate reconnection with the emerging field, is vital to the fast rise of the coronal flux rope. The simulations shown in this paper are able to self-consistently create many of the surface and coronal signatures used by coronal mass ejection (CME) models. These signatures include surface shearing and rotational motions, quadrupolar geometry above the surface, central sheared arcades reconnecting with oppositely orientated overlying dipole fields, the formation of coronal flux ropes underlying potential coronal field, and internal reconnection which resembles the classical flare reconnection scenario. This suggests that proposed mechanisms for the initiation of a CME, such as "magnetic breakout," are operating during the emergence of new active regions.

We present the results of a survey aimed at discovering and studying transiting planets with orbital periods shorter than one day (ultra-short-period, or USP, planets), using data from the Kepler spacecraft. We computed Fourier transforms of the photometric time series for all 200,000 target stars, and detected transit signals based on the presence of regularly spaced sharp peaks in the Fourier spectrum. We present a list of 106 USP candidates, of which 18 have not previously been described in the literature. This list of candidates increases the number of planet candidates with orbital periods shorter than about six hours from two to seven. In addition, among the objects we studied, there are 26 USP candidates that had been previously reported in the literature which do not pass our various tests. All 106 of our candidates have passed several standard tests to rule out false positives due to eclipsing stellar systems. A low false positive rate is also implied by the relatively high fraction of candidates for which more than one transiting planet signal was detected. By assuming these multi-transit candidates represent coplanar multi-planet systems, we are able to infer that the USP planets are typically accompanied by other planets with periods in the range 1–50 days, in contrast with hot Jupiters which very rarely have companions in that same period range. Another clear pattern is that almost all USP planets are smaller than 2 R_⊕, possibly because gas giants in very tight orbits would lose their atmospheres by photoevaporation when subject to extremely strong stellar irradiation. Based on our survey statistics, USP planets exist around approximately (0.51 ± 0.07)% of G-dwarf stars, and (0.83 ± 0.18)% of K-dwarf stars.

We present Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) Cycle-0 observations of the CO (6–5) line emission (rest-frame frequency = 691.473 GHz) and of the 435 μm dust continuum emission in the nuclear region of NGC 34, a local luminous infrared galaxy at a distance of 84 Mpc (1'' = 407 pc) which contains a Seyfert 2 active galactic nucleus (AGN) and a nuclear starburst. The CO emission is well resolved by the ALMA beam (026 × 023), with an integrated flux of f_CO(6–5) = 1004 (± 151) Jy km s⁻¹. Both the morphology and kinematics of the CO (6–5) emission are rather regular, consistent with a compact rotating disk with a size of 200 pc. A significant emission feature is detected on the redshifted wing of the line profile at the frequency of the H¹³CN (8–7) line, with an integrated flux of 17.7 ± 2.1(random) ± 2.7(systematic) Jy km s⁻¹. However, it cannot be ruled out that the feature is due to an outflow of warm dense gas with a mean velocity of 400 km s⁻¹. The continuum is resolved into an elongated configuration, and the observed flux corresponds to a dust mass of M_dust = 10^{6.97 ± 0.13} M_☉. An unresolved central core (radius ≃ 50 pc) contributes 28% of the continuum flux and 19% of the CO (6–5) flux, consistent with insignificant contributions of the AGN to both emissions. Both the CO (6–5) and continuum spatial distributions suggest a very high gas column density (≳ 10⁴ M_☉ pc⁻²) in the nuclear region at radius ≲ 100 pc.

The interaction of TeV photons from blazars with the extragalactic background light produces a relativistic beam of electron-positron pairs streaming through the intergalactic medium (IGM). The fate of the beam energy is uncertain. By means of two- and three-dimensional particle-in-cell simulations, we study the nonlinear evolution of dilute ultra-relativistic pair beams propagating through the IGM. We explore a wide range of beam Lorentz factors γ_b ≫ 1 and beam-to-plasma density ratios α  ≪  1, so that our results can be extrapolated to the extreme parameters of blazar-induced beams (γ_b  ∼  10⁶ and α  ∼  10⁻¹⁵, for powerful blazars). For cold beams, we show that the oblique instability governs the early stages of evolution, but its exponential growth terminates—due to self-heating of the beam in the transverse direction—when only a negligible fraction ∼(α/γ_b)^1/3  ∼  10⁻⁷ of the beam energy has been transferred to the IGM plasma. Further relaxation of the beam proceeds through quasi-longitudinal modes, until the momentum dispersion in the direction of propagation saturates at Δp_{b, ∥}/γ_bm_ec  ∼  0.2. This corresponds to a fraction ∼10% of the beam energy—irrespective of γ_b or α—being ultimately transferred to the IGM plasma (as compared to the heating efficiency of ∼50% predicted by one-dimensional models, which cannot properly account for the transverse broadening of the beam). For the warm beams generated by TeV blazars, the development of the longitudinal relaxation is suppressed, since the initial dispersion in beam momentum is already Δp_{b0, ∥}/γ_bm_ec ≳ 1. Here, the fraction of beam energy ultimately deposited into the IGM is only ∼α γ_b  ∼  10⁻⁹. It follows that most of the beam energy is still available to power the GeV emission produced by inverse Compton up-scattering of the cosmic microwave background by the beam pairs.

We revisit the average hard X-ray spectrum from the active galactic nucleus (AGN) of Centaurus A (Cen A) using 10 yr worth of observations with INTEGRAL SPI. This source has the highest flux observed from any AGNs in the SPI bandpass (23 keV–8 MeV). The 10 year light curve of Cen A is presented, and hardness ratios confirm that the spectral shape changes very little despite the luminosity varying by a factor of a few. Primarily, we establish the presence of a reflection component in the average spectrum by demonstrating an excess between 20 and 60 keV, from extending the spectral shape observed at low energy to the SPI regime. The excess in Chandra HETGS and INTEGRAL SPI data is well described by reflection of the dominant power-law spectrum from a neutral, optically thick atmosphere. We find that the reprocessed emission contributes 20%–25% of the 23–100 keV flux. The existence of a cutoff at tens to hundreds of kiloelectron volts remains controversial. Using simulated spectra, we demonstrate that a high energy cutoff reproduces the observed spectral properties of Cen A more readily than a simple power law. However, we also show that such a cutoff is probably underestimated when neglecting (even modest) reflection, and for Cen A would be at energies >700 keV, with a confidence of >95%. This is atypically high for thermal Comptonizing plasmas observed in AGNs, and we propose that we are in fact modeling the more gradual change in spectral shape expected of synchrotron self-Compton spectra.

The Double Pulsar, PSR J0737–3039A/B, is a unique system in which both neutron stars have been detected as radio pulsars. As shown in Ferdman et al., there is no evidence for pulse profile evolution of the A pulsar, and the geometry of the pulsar was fit well with a double-pole circular radio beam model. Assuming a more realistic polar cap model with a vacuum retarded dipole magnetosphere configuration including special relativistic effects, we create synthesized pulse profiles for A given the best-fit geometry from the simple circular beam model. By fitting synthesized pulse profiles to those observed from pulsar A, we constrain the geometry of the radio beam, namely the half-opening angle and the emission altitude, to be ∼30° and ∼10 neutron star radii, respectively. Combining the observational constraints of PSR J0737–3039A/B, we are able to construct the full three-dimensional orbital geometry of the Double Pulsar. The relative angle between the spin axes of the two pulsars (Δ_S) is estimated to be ∼(138° ± 5°) at the current epoch and will likely remain constant until tidal interactions become important in ∼85 Myr, at merger.

We construct an X-ray spectral model for the clumpy torus in an active galactic nucleus (AGN) using Geant4, which includes the physical processes of the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, Rayleigh scattering, γ conversion, fluorescence line, and Auger process. Since the electrons in the torus are expected to be bounded instead of free, the deviation of the scattering cross section from the Klein–Nishina cross section has also been included, which changes the X-ray spectra by up to 25% below 10 keV. We have investigated the effect of the clumpiness parameters on the reflection spectra and the strength of the fluorescent line Fe Kα. The volume filling factor of the clouds in the clumpy torus only slightly influences the reflection spectra, however, the total column density and the number of clouds along the line of sight significantly change the shapes and amplitudes of the reflection spectra. The effect of column density is similar to the case of a smooth torus, while a small number of clouds along the line of sight will smooth out the anisotropy of the reflection spectra and the fluorescent line Fe Kα. The smoothing effect is mild in the low column density case (N_H = 10²³ cm⁻²), whereas it is much more evident in the high column density case (N_H = 10²⁵ cm⁻²). Our model provides a quantitative tool for the spectral analysis of the clumpy torus. We suggest that the joint fits of the broad band spectral energy distributions of AGNs (from X-ray to infrared) should better constrain the structure of the torus.

It is likely that nearly all central galactic massive and supermassive black holes are nonradiative: their accretion luminosities are orders of magnitude below what can be explained by efficient black hole accretion within their ambient environments. These objects, of which Sagittarius A^* is the best-known example, are also dilute (mildly collisional to highly collisionless) and optically thin. In order for accretion to occur, magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) instabilities must develop that not only transport angular momentum, but also gravitational energy generated through matter infall, outward. A class of new magnetohydrodynamical fluid instabilities—the magnetoviscous-thermal instability (MVTI)—was found to transport angular momentum and energy along magnetic field lines through large (fluid) viscosities and thermal conductivities. This paper describes the analog to the MVTI, the collisionless MVTI (CMVTI), that similarly transports energy and angular momentum outward, expected to be important in describing the flow properties of hot, dilute, and radiatively inefficient accretion flows around black holes. We construct a local equilibrium for MHD stability analysis in this differentially rotating disk. We then find and characterize specific instabilities expected to be important in describing their flow properties, and show their qualitative similarities to instabilities derived using the fluid formalism. We conclude with further work needed in modeling this class of accretion flow.

We present astrometric analysis of archival data of water masers in the star-forming region Sharpless 269 (S269) IRS 2w, observed with the VLBI Exploration of Radio Astrometry. An annual parallax of one of the bright maser features in this region was previously reported to be 0.189 ± 0.008 milliarcsecond (mas) using part of the same archival data as we used. However, we found that this maser feature is not the best to represent the annual parallax to S269 IRS 2w because the morphology is remarkably elongated in the east–west direction. For this study we have selected another maser feature showing simpler morphology. This makes the new annual parallax estimate more credible. Our newly obtained annual parallax is 0.247 ± 0.034 mas, corresponding to $4.05^{+0.65}_{-0.49}$ kpc. This value is well consistent with the 3.7–3.8 kpc obtained using the kinematic distance estimates and photometric distance modulus. We considered two hypotheses for the water-maser spatial distribution, a bipolar outflow and an expanding ring, in a kinematic model fitting analysis with a radially expanding flow. At this stage, any conclusions about the systemic proper motion could not be drawn from the kinematic analysis. Alternatively, we evaluated the mean proper motion to be (0.39 ± 0.92, −1.27 ± 0.90) mas yr⁻¹ eastward and northward, respectively, from the obtained proper motions of the detected water-maser features. The newly obtained annual parallax and mean proper motion give the peculiar motion of S269 IRS 2w to be (U_s, V_s, W_s) of (8 ± 6, −21 ± 17, 1 ± 18) km s⁻¹.

The short-period comet P/2010 V1 (Ikeya–Murakami, hereafter "V1") was discovered visually by two amateur astronomers. The appearance of the comet was peculiar, consisting of an envelope, a spherical coma near the nucleus and a tail extending in the anti-solar direction. We investigated the brightness and the morphological development of the comet by taking optical images with ground-based telescopes. Our observations show that V1 experienced a large-scale explosion between UT 2010 October 31 and November 3. The color of the comet was consistent with the Sun (g' − R_C = 0.61 ± 0.20, R_C − I_C = 0.20 ± 0.20, and B − R_C = 0.93 ± 0.25), suggesting that dust particles were responsible for the brightening. We used a dynamical model to understand the peculiar morphology, and found that the envelope consisted of small grains (0.3–1 μm) expanding at a maximum speed of 500 ± 40 m s⁻¹, while the tail and coma were composed of a wider range of dust particle sizes (0.4–570 μm) and expansion speeds 7–390 m s⁻¹. The total mass of ejecta is ∼5 × 10⁸ kg and kinetic energy ∼5 × 10¹² J. These values are much smaller than in the historic outburst of 17P/Holmes in 2007, but the energy per unit mass (1 × 10⁴ J kg⁻¹) is comparable. The energy per unit mass is about 10% of the energy released during the crystallization of amorphous water ice suggesting that crystallization of buried amorphous ice can supply the mass and energy of the outburst ejecta.

The degree of disruption in collisions in free space is determined by specific impact energy, and the mass fraction of the largest remnant is a monotonically decreasing function of impact energy. However, it has not been shown whether such a relationship is applicable to collisions under the influence of a planet's tidal force, which is important in ring dynamics and satellite accretion. Here we examine the collisional disruption of gravitational aggregates in the tidal environment by using local N-body simulations. We find that outcomes of such a collision largely depend on the impact velocity, the direction of impact, and the radial distance from the planet. In the case of a strong tidal field corresponding to Saturn's F ring, collisions in the azimuthal direction are much more destructive than those in the radial direction. Numerical results of collisions sensitively depend on the impact velocity, and a complete disruption of aggregates can occur even in impacts with velocity much lower than their escape velocity. In such low-velocity collisions, the deformation of colliding aggregates plays an essential role in determining collision outcomes, because the physical size of the aggregate is comparable to its Hill radius. On the other hand, the dependence of collision outcomes on impact velocity becomes similar to the case in free space when the distance from the planet is sufficiently large. Our results are consistent with Cassini observations of the F ring, which suggest ongoing creation and disruption of aggregates within the ring.

We investigate the dynamics and magnetic properties of orphan penumbrae observed in the solar photosphere to understand the formation process of such structures. We observed two orphan penumbrae in active region NOAA 11089 during a coordinated observing campaign carried out in 2010 July, involving the Hinode/Solar Optical Telescope (SOT) and Dutch Open Telescope (DOT), benefiting also from continuous observations acquired by the SDO satellite. We follow their evolution during about three days. The two structures form in different ways: one seems to break off the penumbra of a nearby sunspot, the other is formed through the emergence of new flux. Then they fragment while evolving. The SDO Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager measurements indicate the presence of strong line-of-sight motions in the regions occupied by these orphan penumbrae, lasting for several hours and decreasing with time. This is confirmed by SOT spectro-polarimetric measurements of the Fe i 630.2 nm pair. The latter also show that Stokes parameters exhibit significant asymmetries in the orphan penumbral regions, typical of an uncombed filamentary structure. The orphan penumbrae lie above polarity inversion lines, where peculiar plasma motions take place with velocities larger than ±3 km s⁻¹. The vector magnetic field in these regions is highly inclined, with the average magnetic field strength decreasing with time. The DOT observations in the Hα line and SDO Atmospheric Imaging Assembly measurements in the He ii 30.4 nm line indicate that there is no counterpart for the orphan penumbrae at midchromospheric heights or above. Our findings suggest that in at least one of the features investigated the emerging flux may be trapped in the low atmospheric layers by the overlying pre-existing fields, forming these filamentary structures.

Recent observations of a sunspot's umbra have suggested that it may be finely structured on a subarcsecond scale representing a mix of hot and cool plasma elements. In this study, we report the first detailed observations of umbral spikes, which are cool jet-like structures seen in the chromosphere of an umbra. The spikes are cone-shaped features with a typical height of 0.5–1.0 Mm and a width of about 0.1 Mm. Their lifetime ranges from 2 to 3 minutes and they tend to re-appear at the same location. The spikes are not associated with photospheric umbral dots and they instead tend to occur above the darkest parts of the umbra where magnetic fields are strongest. The spikes exhibit up and down oscillatory motions and their spectral evolution suggests that they might be driven by upward propagating shocks generated by photospheric oscillations. It is worth noting that triggering of the running penumbral waves seems to occur during the interval when the spikes reach their maximum height.

Simultaneous radio and extreme ultraviolet (EUV)/white-light imaging data are examined for a solar type II radio burst occurring on 2010 March 18 to deduce its source location. Using a bow-shock model, we reconstruct the three-dimensional EUV wave front (presumably the type-II-emitting shock) based on the imaging data of the two Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory spacecraft. It is then combined with the Nançay radio imaging data to infer the three-dimensional position of the type II source. It is found that the type II source coincides with the interface between the coronal mass ejection (CME) EUV wave front and a nearby coronal ray structure, providing evidence that the type II emission is physically related to the CME–ray interaction. This result, consistent with those of previous studies, is based on simultaneous radio and EUV imaging data for the first time.

The solar tachocline is likely to be close to a geostrophic "thermal wind," for which the Coriolis force associated with differential rotation is closely balanced by a latitudinal pressure gradient, leading to a tight relation between the vertical gradient of rotation and the latitudinal entropy gradient. Using a hydrostatic but nongeostrophic spherical shell model, we examine baroclinic instability of the tachocline thermal wind. We find that both the overshoot and radiative parts of the tachocline should be baroclinicly unstable at most latitudes. Growth rates are roughly five times higher in middle and high latitudes compared to low latitudes, and much higher in the overshoot than in the radiative tachocline. They range in e-folding amplification from 10 days in the high latitude overshoot tachocline, down to 20 yr for the low latitude radiative tachocline. In the radiative tachocline only, longitudinal wavenumbers m = 1, 2 are unstable, while in the overshoot tachocline a much broader range of m are unstable. At all latitudes and with all stratifications, the longitudinal scale of the most unstable mode is comparable to the Rossby deformation radius, while the growth rate is set by the local latitudinal entropy gradient. Baroclinic instability in the tachocline competing with instability of the latitude rotation gradient established in earlier studies should be important for the workings of the solar dynamo and should be expected to be found in most stars that contain an interface between radiative and convective domains.

Using self-consistent, physically motivated models, we investigate the X-ray obscuration in 19 Type 2 [O iii] 5007 Å selected active galactic nuclei (AGNs), 9 of which are local Seyfert 2 galaxies and 10 of which are Type 2 quasar candidates. We derive reliable line-of-sight and global column densities for these objects, which is the first time this has been reported for an AGN sample; four AGNs have significantly different global and line-of-sight column densities. Five sources are heavily obscured to Compton-thick. We comment on interesting sources revealed by our spectral modeling, including a candidate "naked" Sy2. After correcting for absorption, we find that the ratio of the rest-frame, 2–10 keV luminosity (L_{2-10 keV, in}) to L_[O iii] is 1.54 ± 0.49 dex which is essentially identical to the mean Type 1 AGN value. The Fe Kα luminosity is significantly correlated with L_[O iii] but with substantial scatter. Finally, we do not find a trend between L_{2-10 keV, in} and global or line-of-sight column density, between column density and redshift, between column density and scattering fraction, or between scattering fraction and redshift.

The nuclear radio emission of low-luminosity active galactic nuclei (LLAGNs) is often associated with unresolved cores. In this paper we show that most LLAGNs present extended jet radio emission when observed with sufficient angular resolution and sensitivity. They are thus able to power, at least, parsec-scale radio jets. To increase the detection rate of jets in LLAGNs, we analyze subarcsecond resolution data of three low-ionization nuclear emission regions. This yields the detection of extended jet-like radio structures in NGC 1097 and NGC 2911 and the first resolved parsec-scale jet of NGC 4594 (Sombrero). The three sources belong to a sample of nearby LLAGNs for which high-spatial-resolution spectral energy distribution of their core emission is available. This allows us to study their accretion rate and jet power (Q_jet) without drawing on (most) of the ad hoc assumptions usually considered in large statistical surveys. We find that those LLAGNs with large-scale radio jets (>100 pc) have Q_jet > 10⁴² erg s⁻¹, while the lowest Q_jet correspond to those LLAGNs with parsec-scale (⩽100 pc) jets. The Q_jet is at least as large as the radiated bolometric luminosity for all LLAGN, in agreement with previous statistical studies. Our detection of parsec-scale jets in individual objects further shows that the kinematic jet contribution is equally important in large- or parsec-scale objects. We also find that the Eddington-scaled accretion rate is still highly sub-Eddingtonian (<10⁻⁴) when adding the Q_jet to the total emitted luminosity (radiated plus kinetic). This indicates that LLAGNs are not only inefficient radiators but that they also accrete inefficiently or are very efficient advectors.

We have analyzed the distributions in the color–magnitude diagram (CMD) of a large sample of face-on galaxies to minimize the effect of dust extinctions on galaxy color. About 300,000 galaxies with log (a/b) < 0.2 and redshift z < 0.2 are selected from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey DR7 catalog. Two methods are employed to investigate the distributions of galaxies in the CMD, including one-dimensional (1D) Gaussian fitting to the distributions in individual magnitude bins and two-dimensional (2D) Gaussian mixture model (GMM) fitting to galaxies as a whole. We find that in the 1D fitting, two Gaussians are not enough to fit galaxies with the excess present between the blue cloud and the red sequence. The fitting to this excess defines the center of the green valley in the local universe to be (u − r)_0.1 = −0.121M_{r, 0.1} − 0.061. The fraction of blue cloud and red sequence galaxies turns over around M_{r, 0.1} ∼ −20.1 mag, corresponding to stellar mass of 3 × 10¹⁰ M_☉. For the 2D GMM fitting, a total of four Gaussians are required, one for the blue cloud, one for the red sequence, and the additional two for the green valley. The fact that two Gaussians are needed to describe the distributions of galaxies in the green valley is consistent with some models that argue for two different evolutionary paths from the blue cloud to the red sequence.

Recent studies have highlighted that galaxies at z = 6–8 fall short of producing enough ionizing photons to reionize the intergalactic medium, and suggest that Population III stars could resolve this tension, because their harder spectra can produce ∼10 × more ionizing photons than Population II. We use a semi-analytic model of galaxy formation, which tracks galactic chemical evolution, to gauge the impact of Population III stars on reionization. Population III supernovae produce distinct metal abundances, and we argue that the duration of the Population III era can be constrained by precise relative abundance measurements in high-z damped Lyα absorbers (DLAs), which provide a chemical record of past star formation. We find that a single generation of Population III stars can self-enrich galaxies above the critical metallicity Z_crit = 10⁻⁴ Z_☉ for the Population III-to-II transition, on a very short timescale t_self-enrich ∼ 10⁶ yr, owing to the large metal yields and short lifetimes of Population III stars. This subsequently terminates the Population III era, so they contribute ≳ 50% of the ionizing photons only for z ≳ 30, and at z = 10 contribute <1%. The Population III contribution can be increased by delaying metal mixing into the interstellar medium. However, comparing the resulting metal abundance pattern to existing measurements in z ≲ 6 DLAs, we show that the observed [O/Si] ratios of absorbers rule out Population III stars being a major contributor to reionization. Future abundance measurements of z ∼ 7–8 QSOs and gamma-ray bursts should probe the era when the chemical vestiges of Population III star formation become detectable.

We examine the spatial extent of the narrow-line regions (NLRs) of a sample of 30 luminous obscured quasars at 0.4 < z < 0.7 observed with spatially resolved Gemini-N GMOS long-slit spectroscopy. Using the [O iii] λ5007 emission feature, we estimate the size of the NLR using a cosmology-independent measurement: the radius where the surface brightness falls to 10⁻¹⁵ erg s⁻¹ cm⁻² arcsec⁻². We then explore the effects of atmospheric seeing on NLR size measurements and conclude that direct measurements of the NLR size from observed profiles are too large by 0.1–0.2 dex on average, as compared to measurements made to best-fit Sérsic or Voigt profiles convolved with the seeing. These data, which span a full order of magnitude in IR luminosity (log (L_8 μm/erg s⁻¹) = 44.4–45.4), also provide strong evidence that there is a flattening of the relationship between NLR size and active galactic nucleus luminosity at a seeing-corrected size of ∼7 kpc. The objects in this sample have high luminosities which place them in a previously under-explored portion of the size–luminosity relationship. These results support the existence of a maximal size of the NLR around luminous quasars; beyond this size, there is either not enough gas or the gas is over-ionized and does not produce enough [O iii] λ5007 emission.

Several gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) last much longer (∼hours) in γ-rays than typical long GRBs (∼minutes), and it has recently been proposed that these "ultra-long GRBs" may form a distinct population, probably with a different (e.g., blue supergiant) progenitor than typical GRBs. However, Swift observations suggest that many GRBs have extended central engine activities manifested as flares and internal plateaus in X-rays. We perform a comprehensive study on a large sample of Swift GRBs with X-Ray Telescope observations to investigate GRB central engine activity duration and to determine whether ultra-long GRBs are unusual events. We define burst duration t_burst based on both γ-ray and X-ray light curves rather than using γ-ray observations alone. We find that t_burst can be reliably measured in 343 GRBs. Within this "good" sample, 21.9% GRBs have t_burst ≳ 10³ s and 11.5% GRBs have t_burst ≳ 10⁴ s. There is an apparent bimodal distribution of t_burst in this sample. However, when we consider an "undetermined" sample (304 GRBs) with t_burst possibly falling in the gap between GRB duration T₉₀ and the first X-ray observational time, as well as a selection effect against t_burst falling into the first Swift orbital "dead zone" due to observation constraints, the intrinsic underlying t_burst distribution is consistent with being a single component distribution. We found that the existing evidence for a separate ultra-long GRB population is inconclusive, and further multi-wavelength observations are needed to draw a firmer conclusion. We also discuss the theoretical implications of our results. In particular, the central engine activity duration of GRBs is generally much longer than the γ-ray T₉₀ duration and it does not even correlate with T₉₀. It would be premature to make a direct connection between T₉₀ and the size of the progenitor star.

SAX J2224.9+5421 is an extraordinary neutron star low-mass X-ray binary. It was discovered when it was exhibiting a   ≃ 10 s long thermonuclear X-ray burst, but it had faded to a 0.5–10 keV luminosity of L_X ≲ 8 × 10³²(D/7.1 kpc)² erg s⁻¹ only ≃ 8 hr later. It is generally assumed that neutron stars are quiescent (i.e., not accreting) at such intensity, raising questions about the trigger conditions of the X-ray burst and the origin of the faint persistent emission. We report on a ≃51 ks XMM-Newton observation aimed at finding clues explaining the unusual behavior of SAX J2224.9+5421. We identify a likely counterpart that is detected at L_X  ≃  5 × 10³¹(D/7.1 kpc)² erg s⁻¹ (0.5–10 keV) and has a soft X-ray spectrum that can be described by a neutron star atmosphere model with a temperature of kT^∞  ≃  50 eV. This would suggest that SAX J2224.9+5421 is a transient source that was in quiescence during our XMM-Newton observation and experienced a very faint (ceasing) accretion outburst at the time of the X-ray burst detection. We consider one other potential counterpart that is detected at L_X  ≃  5 × 10³²(D/7.1 kpc)² erg s⁻¹ and displays an X-ray spectrum that is best described by a power law with a photon index of Γ  ≃  1.7. Similarly hard X-ray spectra are seen for a few quiescent neutron stars and may be indicative of a relatively strong magnetic field or the occurrence of low-level accretion.

We use the observed radial profiles of the mass surface densities of total, Σ_g, and molecular, Σ_H2, gas, rotation velocity, and star formation rate (SFR) surface density, Σ_sfr, of the molecular-rich (Σ_H2 ⩾ Σ_HI/2) regions of 16 nearby disk galaxies to test several star formation (SF) laws: a "Kennicutt–Schmidt (K-S)" law, $\Sigma _{\rm {sfr}}=A_g\Sigma _{g,2}^{1.5}$; a "Constant Molecular" law, Σ_sfr = A_H2Σ_{H2, 2}; the turbulence-regulated laws of Krumholz & McKee (KM05) and Krumholz, McKee, & Tumlinson (KMT09); a "Gas-Ω" law, $\Sigma _{\rm {sfr}}=B_\Omega \Sigma _g\Omega$; and a shear-driven "giant molecular cloud (GMC) Collision" law, Σ_sfr = B_CCΣ_gΩ(1–0.7β), where β ≡ d ln v_circ/d ln r. If allowed one free normalization parameter for each galaxy, these laws predict the SFR with rms errors of factors of 1.4–1.8. If a single normalization parameter is used by each law for the entire galaxy sample, then rms errors range from factors of 1.5–2.1. Although the Constant Molecular law gives the smallest rms errors, the improvement over the KMT, K-S, and GMC Collision laws is not especially significant, particularly given the different observational inputs that the laws utilize and the scope of included physics, which ranges from empirical relations to detailed treatment of interstellar medium processes. We next search for systematic variation of SF law parameters with local and global galactic dynamical properties of disk shear rate (related to β), rotation speed, and presence of a bar. We demonstrate with high significance that higher shear rates enhance SF efficiency per local orbital time. Such a trend is expected if GMC collisions play an important role in SF, while an opposite trend would be expected if the development of disk gravitational instabilities is the controlling physics.

Massive quiescent galaxies at z  ≈  2 are apparently much more compact than galaxies of comparable mass today. How robust are these size measurements? We perform comprehensive simulations to determine possible biases and uncertainties in fitting single-component light distributions to real galaxies. In particular, we examine the robustness of the measurements of the luminosity, size, and other structural parameters. We devise simulations with increasing realism to systematically disentangle effects due to the technique (specifically using GALFIT) and the intrinsic structures of the galaxies. By accurately capturing the detailed substructures of nearby elliptical galaxies and then rescaling their sizes and signal-to-noise to mimic galaxies at different redshifts, we confirm that the massive quiescent galaxies at z  ≈  2 are significantly more compact intrinsically than their local counterparts. Their observed compactness is not a result of missing faint outer light due to systematic errors in modeling. In fact, we find that fitting multi-component galaxies with a single Sérsic profile, the procedure most commonly adopted in the literature, biases the inferred sizes higher by up to 10%–20%, which accentuates the amount of size evolution required. If the sky estimation has been done robustly and the model for the point-spread function is fairly accurate, GALFIT can retrieve the properties of single-component galaxies over a wide range of signal-to-noise ratios without introducing any systematic errors.

Precision modeling of M dwarfs has become worthwhile in recent years due to the increasingly precise values of masses and radii which can be obtained from eclipsing binary studies. In a recent paper, Torres has identified four prime M dwarf pairs with the most precise empirical determinations of masses and radii. The measured radii are consistently larger than standard stellar models predict by several percent. These four systems potentially provide the most challenging tests of precision evolutionary models of cool dwarfs at the present time. We have previously modeled M dwarfs in the context of a criterion due to Gough & Tayler in which magnetic fields inhibit the onset of convection according to a physics-based prescription. In the present paper, we apply our magnetoconvective approach to the four prime systems in the Torres list. Going a step beyond what we have already modeled in CM Dra (one of the four Torres systems), we note that new constraints on magnetoconvective models of M dwarfs are now available from empirical estimates of magnetic field strengths on the surfaces of these stars. In the present paper, we consider how well our magnetoconvective models succeed when confronted with this new test of surface magnetic field strengths. Among the systems listed by Torres, we find that plausible magnetic models work well for CM Dra, YY Gem, and CU Cnc. (The fourth system in Torres's list does not yet have enough information to warrant magnetic modeling.) Our magnetoconvection models of CM Dra, YY Gem, and CU Cnc yield predictions of the magnetic fluxes on the stellar surface which are consistent with the observed correlation between magnetic flux and X-ray luminosity.

Characterizing a microlensing planet is done by modeling an observed lensing light curve. In this process, it is often confronted that solutions of different lensing parameters result in similar light curves, causing difficulties in uniquely interpreting the lens system, and thus understanding the causes of different types of degeneracy is important. In this work, we show that incomplete coverage of a planetary perturbation can result in degenerate solutions even for events where the planetary signal is detected with a high level of statistical significance. We demonstrate the degeneracy for an actually observed event OGLE-2012-BLG-0455/MOA-2012-BLG-206. The peak of this high-magnification event (A_max ∼ 400) exhibits very strong deviation from a point-lens model with Δχ² ≳ 4000 for data sets with a total of 6963 measurements. From detailed modeling of the light curve, we find that the deviation can be explained by four distinct solutions, i.e., two very different sets of solutions, each with a twofold degeneracy. While the twofold (so-called close/wide) degeneracy is well understood, the degeneracy between the radically different solutions is not previously known. The model light curves of this degeneracy differ substantially in the parts that were not covered by observation, indicating that the degeneracy is caused by the incomplete coverage of the perturbation. It is expected that the frequency of the degeneracy introduced in this work will be greatly reduced with the improvement of the current lensing survey and follow-up experiments and the advent of new surveys.

Highly accurate quantum chemical calculations beyond CCSD(T) have been used to study the molecular cation l-C₃H⁺ which is the carrier of harmonically related radio lines observed in the Horsehead photodissociation region and toward Sgr B2(N). Excellent agreement with spectroscopic and radioastronomical measurements is obtained for the rotational constant, with the calculated value of B₀ = 11246.4 MHz only 1.5 MHz or 0.01% above the experimental value. The unusually large ratio of centrifugal distortion constants D₀(exp.)/D_e(theor.) = 1.80 is attributed to the shallow CCC bending potential of l-C₃H⁺ and is quantitatively reproduced by variational calculations within a pseudo-triatomic model. A comparative study of centrifugal distortion constants in a series of four linear interstellar molecules (C₃N⁻, C₃O, l-C₃H⁺, and C₃) is made and some general conclusions are drawn.

Quasar luminosity functions are a fundamental probe of the growth and evolution of supermassive black holes. Measuring the intrinsic luminosity function is difficult in practice, due to a multitude of observational and systematic effects. As sample sizes increase and measurement errors drop, characterizing the systematic effects is becoming more important. It is well known that the continuum emission from the accretion disk of quasars is anisotropic—in part due to its disk-like structure—but current luminosity function calculations effectively assume isotropy over the range of unobscured lines of sight. Here, we provide the first steps in characterizing the effect of random quasar orientations and simple models of anisotropy on observed luminosity functions. We find that the effect of orientation is not insignificant and exceeds other potential corrections such as those from gravitational lensing of foreground structures. We argue that current observational constraints may overestimate the intrinsic luminosity function by as much as a factor of ∼2 on the bright end. This has implications for models of quasars and their role in the universe, such as quasars' contribution to cosmological backgrounds.

HNC and HCN, typically used as dense gas tracers in molecular clouds, are a pair of isomers that have great potential as a temperature probe because of temperature dependent, isomer-specific formation and destruction pathways. Previous observations of the HNC/HCN abundance ratio show that the ratio decreases with increasing temperature, something that standard astrochemical models cannot reproduce. We have undertaken a detailed parameter study on which environmental characteristics and chemical reactions affect the HNC/HCN ratio and can thus contribute to the observed dependence. Using existing gas and gas-grain models updated with new reactions and reaction barriers, we find that in static models the H + HNC gas-phase reaction regulates the HNC/HCN ratio under all conditions, except for very early times. We quantitatively constrain the combinations of H abundance and H + HNC reaction barrier that can explain the observed HNC/HCN temperature dependence and discuss the implications in light of new quantum chemical calculations. In warm-up models, gas-grain chemistry contributes significantly to the predicted HNC/HCN ratio and understanding the dynamics of star formation is therefore key to model the HNC/HCN system.

We analyze high-resolution spectra obtained with the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph onboard the Hubble Space Telescope toward 34 nearby stars (⩽100 pc) to record Mg ii, Fe ii, and Mn ii absorption due to the local interstellar medium (LISM). Observations span the entire sky, probing previously unobserved regions of the LISM. The heavy ions studied in this survey produce narrow absorption features that facilitate the identification of multiple interstellar components. We detected one to six individual absorption components along any given sight line, and the number of absorbers roughly correlates with the pathlength. This high-resolution near-ultraviolet (NUV) spectroscopic survey was specifically designed for sight lines with existing far-UV (FUV) observations. The FUV spectra include many intrinsically broad absorption lines (i.e., of low atomic mass ions) and are often observed at medium resolution. The LISM NUV narrow-line absorption component structure presented here can be used to more accurately interpret the archival FUV observations. As an example of this synergy, we present a new analysis of the temperature and turbulence along the line of sight toward Ind. The new observations of LISM velocity structure are also critical in the interpretation of astrospheric absorption derived from fitting the saturated H i Lyα profile. As an example, we reanalyze the spectrum of λ And and find that this star likely does have an astrosphere. Two stars in the sample that have circumstellar disks (49 Cet and HD141569) show evidence for absorption due to disk gas. Finally, the substantially increased number of sight lines is used to test and refine the three-dimensional kinematic model of the LISM and search for previously unidentified clouds within the Local Bubble. We find that every prediction made by the Redfield & Linsky kinematic model of the LISM is confirmed by an observed component in the new lines of sight.

The narrow ribbon of enhanced energetic neutral atom flux observed by the Interstellar Boundary Explorer spacecraft has prompted numerous ideas to explain its structure and properties. One of these ideas is the "neutral solar wind" scenario, which identifies the source particles as pickup protons in the local interstellar medium originating in solar wind charge-exchange interactions. This scenario has been thought to require unrealistically weak pitch-angle scattering of the pickup protons to explain the narrow structure. Recently, Schwadron & McComas suggested that this structure could result from a spatial retention of the pickup protons, rather than from a restricted pitch-angle distribution. Here, we present a physically motivated, quantitative mechanism to produce such a spatial configuration. This mechanism is based on the "dominant turbulence" assumption, which can be applied where the production of new pickup protons is slow, and has been used to successfully explain the level of turbulent heating observed in the outer solar wind. This formalism predicts a pickup isotropization process which adds or subtracts energy from the ambient turbulent fluctuations, depending on the initial pitch angle of the pickup protons. We show that a simple model of this process can yield a ribbon structure in qualitative agreement with the observations. The results of this simple model are not yet quantitatively satisfactory, but we suggest several improvements which may reduce the quantitative discrepancy.

The ubiquitous diffuse soft (1/4 keV) X-ray background was one of the earliest discoveries of X-ray astronomy. At least some of the emission may arise from charge exchange between solar wind ions and neutral atoms in the heliosphere, but no detailed models have been fit to the available data. Here, we report on a new model for charge exchange in the solar wind, which, when combined with a diffuse hot plasma component, filling the Local Cavity provides a good fit to the only available high-resolution soft X-ray and extreme ultraviolet spectra using plausible parameters for the solar wind. The implied hot plasma component is in pressure equilibrium with the local cloud that surrounds the solar system, creating for the first time a self-consistent picture of the local interstellar medium.

The formation of clouds affects brown dwarf and planetary atmospheres of nearly all effective temperatures. Iron and silicate condense in L dwarf atmospheres and dissipate at the L/T transition. Minor species such as sulfides and salts condense in mid- to late T dwarfs. For brown dwarfs below T_eff ∼ 450 K, water condenses in the upper atmosphere to form ice clouds. Currently, over a dozen objects in this temperature range have been discovered, and few previous theoretical studies have addressed the effect of water clouds on brown dwarf or exoplanetary spectra. Here we present a new grid of models that include the effect of water cloud opacity. We find that they become optically thick in objects below T_eff ∼ 350–375 K. Unlike refractory cloud materials, water-ice particles are significantly nongray absorbers; they predominantly scatter at optical wavelengths through the J band and absorb in the infrared with prominent features, the strongest of which is at 2.8 μm. H₂O, NH₃, CH₄, and H₂ CIA are dominant opacity sources; less abundant species may also be detectable, including the alkalis, H₂S, and PH₃. PH₃, which has been detected in Jupiter, is expected to have a strong signature in the mid-infrared at 4.3 μm in Y dwarfs around T_eff = 450 K; if disequilibrium chemistry increases the abundance of PH₃, it may be detectable over a wider effective temperature range than models predict. We show results incorporating disequilibrium nitrogen and carbon chemistry and predict signatures of low gravity in planetary mass objects. Finally, we make predictions for the observability of Y dwarfs and planets with existing and future instruments, including the James Webb Space Telescope and Gemini Planet Imager.

By combining density functional molecular dynamics simulations with a thermodynamic integration technique, we determine the free energy of metallic hydrogen and silica, SiO₂, at megabar pressures and thousands of degrees Kelvin. Our ab initio solubility calculations show that silica dissolves into fluid hydrogen above 5000 K for pressures from 10 and 40 Mbars, which has implications for the evolution of rocky cores in giant gas planets like Jupiter, Saturn, and a substantial fraction of known extrasolar planets. Our findings underline the necessity of considering the erosion and redistribution of core materials in giant planet evolution models, but they also demonstrate that hot metallic hydrogen is a good solvent at megabar pressures, which has implications for high-pressure experiments.

We extract densities and eccentricities of 139 sub-Jovian planets by analyzing transit time variations (TTVs) obtained by the Kepler mission through Quarter 12. We partially circumvent the degeneracies that plague TTV inversion with the help of an analytical formula for the TTV. From the observed TTV phases, we find that most of these planets have eccentricities of the order of a few percent. More precisely, the rms eccentricity is $0.018^{+0.005}_{-0.004}$, and planets smaller than 2.5 R_⊕ are around twice as eccentric as those bigger than 2.5 R_⊕. We also find a best-fit density–radius relationship ρ ≈ 3 g cm⁻³ × (R/3 R_⊕)^−2.3 for the 56 planets that likely have small eccentricity and hence small statistical correction to their masses. Many planets larger than 2.5 R_⊕ are less dense than water, implying that their radii are largely set by a massive hydrogen atmosphere.

The composition of planets is largely determined by the chemical and dynamical evolution of the disk during planetesimal formation and growth. To predict the diversity of exoplanet compositions, previous works modeled planetesimal composition as the equilibrium chemical composition of a protoplanetary disk at a single time. However, planetesimals form over an extended period of time, during which elements sequentially condense out of the gas as the disk cools and are accreted onto planetesimals. To account for the evolution of the disk during planetesimal formation, we couple models of disk chemistry and dynamics with a prescription for planetesimal formation. We then follow the growth of these planetesimals into terrestrial planets with N-body simulations of late-stage planet formation to evaluate the effect of sequential condensation on the bulk composition of planets. We find that our model produces results similar to those of earlier models for disks with C/O ratios close to the solar value (0.54). However, in disks with C/O ratios greater than 0.8, carbon-rich planetesimals form throughout a much larger radial range of the disk. Furthermore, our model produces carbon-rich planetesimals in disks with C/O ratios as low as ∼0.65, which is not possible in the static equilibrium chemistry case. These results suggest that (1) there may be a large population of short-period carbon-rich planets around moderately carbon-enhanced stars (0.65 < C/O < 0.8) and (2) carbon-rich planets can form throughout the terrestrial planet region around carbon-rich stars (C/O > 0.8).

We present updated analyses of pulse profiles and their arrival times from PSR B1534+12, a 37.9 ms radio pulsar in orbit with another neutron star. A high-precision timing model is derived from 22 yr of timing data and accounts for all astrophysical processes that systematically affect pulse arrival times. Five "post-Keplerian" parameters are measured that represent relativistic corrections to the standard Keplerian quantities of the pulsar's binary orbit. These relativistic parameters are then used to test general relativity by comparing the measurements with their predicted values. We conclude that relativity theory is confirmed to within 0.17% of its predictions. Furthermore, we derive the following astrophysical results from our timing analysis: a distance of d_GR = 1.051 ± 0.005 kpc to the pulsar-binary system, by relating the "excess" orbital decay to Galactic parameters; evidence for pulse "jitter" in PSR B1534+12 due to short-term magnetospheric activity; and evolution in pulse-dispersion properties. As a secondary study, we also present several analyses on pulse-structure evolution and its connection to relativistic precession of the pulsar's spin axis. The precession-rate measurement yields a value of $\Omega _1^{{\rm spin}} = 0.59^{+0.12}_{-0.08}$° yr⁻¹ (68% confidence) that is consistent with expectations and represents an additional test of relativistic gravity.

MCG−6-30-15, at a distance of 37 Mpc (z = 0.008), is the archetypical Seyfert 1 galaxy showing very broad Fe Kα emission. We present results from a joint NuSTAR and XMM-Newton observational campaign that, for the first time, allows a sensitive, time-resolved spectral analysis from 0.35 keV up to 80 keV. The strong variability of the source is best explained in terms of intrinsic X-ray flux variations and in the context of the light-bending model: the primary, variable emission is reprocessed by the accretion disk, which produces secondary, less variable, reflected emission. The broad Fe Kα profile is, as usual for this source, well explained by relativistic effects occurring in the innermost regions of the accretion disk around a rapidly rotating black hole. We also discuss the alternative model in which the broadening of the Fe Kα is due to the complex nature of the circumnuclear absorbing structure. Even if this model cannot be ruled out, it is disfavored on statistical grounds. We also detected an occultation event likely caused by broad-line region clouds crossing the line of sight.

In this paper we propose a new mechanism describing the initial spike of giant flares in the framework of the starquake model. We investigate the evolution of a plasma on a closed magnetic flux tube in the magnetosphere of a magnetar in the case of a sudden energy release, and discuss the relationship with observations of giant flares. We perform one-dimensional, numerical simulations of the relativistic magnetohydrodynamics in Schwarzschild geometry. We assume energy is injected at the footpoints of the loop by a hot star surface containing random perturbations of the transverse velocity. Alfvén waves are generated and propagate upward, accompanying very hot plasma which is also continuously heated by nonlinearly generated compressive waves. We find that the front edges of the fireball regions collide at the top of the tube with their symmetrically launched counterparts. This collision results in an energy release that can describe the light curve of the initial spikes of giant flares.

NGC 4194 is a post-merger starburst known as The Medusa for its striking tidal features. We present here a detailed study of the structure and kinematics of ionized gas in the central 0.65 kpc of the Medusa. The data include radio continuum maps with resolution up to 018 (35 pc) and a 12.8 μm [Ne ii] data cube with spectral resolution ∼4 km s⁻¹: the first high-resolution, extinction-free observations of this remarkable object. The ionized gas has the kinematic signature of a core in solid-body rotation. The starburst has formed a complex of bright compact H ii regions, probably excited by deeply embedded super star clusters, but none of these sources is a convincing candidate for a Galactic nucleus. The nuclei of the merger partners that created the Medusa have not yet been identified.

Observations with RHESSI have enabled the detailed study of the structure of dense hard X-ray coronal sources in solar flares. The variation of source extent with electron energy has been discussed in the context of streaming of non-thermal particles in a one-dimensional cold target model and the results used to constrain both the physical extent of, and density within, the electron acceleration region. Here, we extend this investigation to a more physically realistic model of electron transport that takes into account the finite temperature of the ambient plasma, the initial pitch angle distribution of the accelerated electrons, and the effects of collisional pitch angle scattering. The finite temperature results in the thermal diffusion of electrons, which leads to the observationally inferred value of the acceleration region volume being an overestimate of its true value. The different directions of the electron trajectories, a consequence of both the non-zero injection pitch angle and scattering within the target, cause the projected propagation distance parallel to the guiding magnetic field to be reduced, so that a one-dimensional interpretation can overestimate the actual density by a factor of up to ∼6. The implications of these results for the determination of acceleration region properties (specific acceleration rate, filling factor, etc.) are discussed.

Coronal heating theories can be classified as either direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC) mechanisms, depending on whether the coronal magnetic field responds quasi-statically or dynamically to the photospheric footpoint motions. In this paper we investigate whether photospheric footpoint motions with velocities of 1–2 km s⁻¹ can heat the corona in active regions, and whether the corona responds quasi-statically or dynamically to such motions (DC versus AC heating). We construct three-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic models for the Alfvén waves and quasi-static perturbations generated within a coronal loop. We find that in models where the effects of the lower atmosphere are neglected, the corona responds quasi-statically to the footpoint motions (DC heating), but the energy flux into the corona is too low compared to observational requirements. In more realistic models that include the lower atmosphere, the corona responds more dynamically to the footpoint motions (AC heating) and the predicted heating rates due to Alfvén wave turbulence are sufficient to explain the observed hot loops. The higher heating rates are due to the amplification of Alfvén waves in the lower atmosphere. We conclude that magnetic braiding is a highly dynamic process.

We studied the temporal evolution of the magnetic topology of the active region (AR) 11158 based on the reconstructed three-dimensional magnetic fields in the corona. The non-linear force-free field extrapolation method was applied to the 12 minute cadence data obtained with the Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager on board the Solar Dynamics Observatory during 5 days. By calculating the squashing degree factor Q in the volume, the derived quasi-separatrix layers (QSLs) show that this AR has an overall topology, resulting from a magnetic quadrupole, including a hyperbolic flux tube (HFT) configuration that is relatively stable at the timescale of the flare (∼1–2 hr). A strong QSL, which corresponds to some highly sheared arcades that might be related to the formation of a flux rope, is prominent just before the M6.6 and X2.2 flares, respectively. These facts indicate the close relationship between the strong QSL and the high flare productivity of AR 11158. In addition, with a close inspection of the topology, we found a small-scale HFT that has an inverse tear-drop structure above the aforementioned QSL before the X2.2 flare. It indicates the existence of magnetic flux rope at this place. Even though a global configuration (HFT) is recognized in this AR, it turns out that the large-scale HFT only plays a secondary role during the eruption. In conclusion, we dismiss a trigger based on the breakout model and highlight the central role of the flux rope in the related eruption.

We describe our completed spectroscopic survey for unbound hypervelocity stars (HVSs) ejected from the Milky Way. Three new discoveries bring the total number of unbound late B-type stars to 21. We place new constraints on the nature of the stars and on their distances using moderate resolution MMT spectroscopy. Half of the stars are fast rotators; they are certain 2.5–4 M_☉ main sequence stars at 50–120 kpc distances. Correcting for stellar lifetime, our survey implies that unbound 2.5–4 M_☉ stars are ejected from the Milky Way at a rate of 1.5 × 10⁻⁶ yr⁻¹. These unbound HVSs are likely ejected continuously over the past 200 Myr and do not share a common flight time. The anisotropic spatial distribution of HVSs on the sky remains puzzling. Southern hemisphere surveys like SkyMapper will soon allow us to map the all-sky distribution of HVSs. Future proper motion measurements with Hubble Space Telescope and Gaia will provide strong constraints on origin. Existing observations are all consistent with HVS ejections from encounters with the massive black hole in the Galactic center.

We develop a robust technique to determine the minimum variability timescale for gamma-ray burst (GRB) light curves, utilizing Haar wavelets. Our approach averages over the data for a given GRB, providing an aggregate measure of signal variation while also retaining sensitivity to narrow pulses within complicated time series. In contrast to previous studies using wavelets, which simply define the minimum timescale in reference to the measurement noise floor, our approach identifies the signature of temporally smooth features in the wavelet scaleogram and then additionally identifies a break in the scaleogram on longer timescales as a signature of a true, temporally unsmooth light curve feature or features. We apply our technique to the large sample of Swift GRB gamma-ray light curves and for the first time—due to the presence of a large number of GRBs with measured redshift—determine the distribution of minimum variability timescales in the source frame. We find a median minimum timescale for long-duration GRBs in the source frame of Δt_min = 0.5 s, with the shortest timescale found being on the order of 10 ms. This short timescale suggests a compact central engine (3 × 10³ km). We discuss further implications for the GRB fireball model and present a tantalizing correlation between the minimum timescale and redshift, which may in part be due to cosmological time dilation.

Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are the ultimate cosmic lighthouses, capable of illuminating the universe at its earliest epochs. Could such events probe the properties of the first stars at z ∼ 20, the end of the cosmic Dark Ages? Previous studies of Population III (Pop III) GRBs only considered explosions in the diffuse relic H ii regions of their progenitors or bursts that are far more energetic than those observed to date. However, the processes that produce GRBs at the highest redshifts likely reset their local environments, creating much more complicated structures than those in which relativistic jets have been modeled so far. These structures can greatly affect the luminosity of the afterglow and hence the redshift at which it can be detected. We have now simulated Pop III GRB afterglows in H ii regions, winds, and dense shells ejected by the star during the processes that produce the burst. We find that GRBs with E_{iso, γ} = 10⁵¹–10⁵³ erg will be visible at z ≳ 20 to the next generation of near infrared and radio observatories. In many cases, the environment of the burst, and hence progenitor type, can be inferred from the afterglow light curve. Although some Pop III GRBs are visible to Swift and the Very Large Array now, the optimal strategy for their detection will be future missions like the proposed EXIST and JANUS missions with large survey areas and onboard X-ray and infrared telescopes that can track their near-infrared flux from the moment of the burst, thereby identifying their redshifts.