Table of contents

Proceedings of 1^st International Symposium on Green Technology for Value Chains (Green VC) 2016

The First International Symposium on Green Technology for Value Chains 2016 was held on October 2-3, 2016 in Indonesia Convention Exhibition (ICE), BSD City, Indonesia. It was organized by the Research Unit for Clean Technology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) and mainly supported by Deputy for Engineering and Sciences, LIPI. Studies on (1) Waste Treatment and Management, (2) Green Materials and Process, (3) Green Energy, (4) Life Cycle and Environmental Monitoring, and (5) Socio-technological Assessment on Green Production were all presented orally.

Keynote presentations were provided to show the contribution of scientist in to sustainable subject of research. Value Chains for Sustainable Development was presented by Prof. Naoyuki Funamizu from Hokkaido University, Japan whereas presentation about Towards Sustainable Pollution Management was provided by Prof. Ng Wun Jern from Nanyang Technology University, Singapore. Recent issues on Green Materials for Sustainable Development was delivered by Prof. Bambang Sunendar Purwasasmita from Bandung Institute of Technology, Indonesia. In addition, presentation on Indonesia Municiple Solid Waste Life Cycle and Environmental Monitoring was provided by Ir. Susmono from Kemitraan Habitat, Indonesia.

Participants from Japan, Zambia, Burkina Faso, and Indonesia had many fruitful discussions and exchanges that contributed to the success of the symposium.

This Proceedings, cover 33 papers selected from 46 scientific presentations presented in the symposium.

We would like to thank our sincere gratitude to our Advisory Board, Scientific and Editorial Board for their positive contribution to keep the quality of the articles presented in this proceedings. We also would like to appreciate to all participants attending this symposium as well as to Organizing Committee whom made the symposium successful.

In the continuation of the success of the first event, the Second International Symposium on Green Technology for Value Chains will take place in Jakarta, Indonesia, 23-24 October 2017.

March 15, 2017

Editor in Chiefs

Prof. Myrtha Karina

Dr. Muhamad Nasir

International Symposium on Green Technology for Value Chains 2016 (GreenVC 2016) Value Chains for Sustainable Development Tangerang Banten, Indonesia October 3-5, 2016

ORGANIZING COMMITTEE

Advisory Board

▪ Prof. Iskandar Zulkarnaen (Chairman of Indonesian Institute of Sciences, LIPI, Indonesia)

▪ Dr. Laksana Tri Handoko (Deputy Chairman for Engineering Sciences, LIPI, Indonesia)

▪ Dr. Rike Yudianti (Head for Research Unit for Clean Technology, LIPI, Indonesia)

▪ Prof. Naoyuki Funamizu (University of Hokkaido, Japan)

▪ Prof. Ng Wun Jern (Nanyang Technology University, Singapore)

▪ Prof. Bambang Sunendar (Bandung Institute of Technology, ITB, Indonesia)

▪ Ir. Susmono (Kemitraan Habitat, Indonesia)

Scientific and Editorial (S&E) Board

▪ Prof. Myrtha Karina (Research Unit for Clean Technology, LIPI, Indonesia)

▪ Prof. Tarzan Sembiring (Research Unit for Clean Technology, LIPI, Indonesia)

▪ Prof. M. Hanafi (Research Center for Chemistry, LIPI, Indonesia)

▪ Prof. Rahmiana Zein (Andalas University, Indonesia)

▪ Prof. Safni (Andalas University, Indonesia)

▪ Prof. Syukri Arif (Andalas University, Indonesia)

▪ Prof. Naoyuki Funamizu (Hokkaido University, Japan)

▪ Prof. Imasiku Nyambe (Zambia University, Zambia)

▪ Dr. Sri Pudjiraharti (Research Unit for Clean Technology, LIPI, Indonesia)

▪ Dr. Neni Sintawardani (Research Unit for Clean Technology, LIPI, Indonesia)

▪ Dr. Muhammad Nasir (Research Unit for Clean Technology, LIPI, Indonesia)

▪ Dr. Hari R. Hariyadi (Research Unit for Clean Technology, LIPI, Indonesia)

▪ Dr. Tiny A. Koesmawati (Research Unit for Clean Technology, LIPI, Indonesia)

▪ Dr. Nanik Indayaningsih (Research Center for Physics, LIPI, Indonesia)

▪ Dr. Haznan Abimanyu (Research Center for Chemistry, LIPI, Indonesia)

▪ Dr. Edi Iswanto Wiloso (Research Center for Chemistry, LIPI, Indonesia)

▪ Dr. Rizna Triana Dewi (Research Center for Chemistry, LIPI, Indonesia)

▪ Dr. Dieni Mansur (Research Center for Chemistry, LIPI, Indonesia)

▪ Dr. Wahyu Dwianto (Research Center for Biomaterial, LIPI, Indonesia)

▪ Dr. Indriana Kartini (Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia)

▪ Ir. Imam Djunaedi (Research Center for Electrical Power and Mechatronics, LIPI, Indonesia)

▪ Ir. I Made Astina M.Eng., Ph.D. (Institute Technology of Bandung, Indonesia)

All papers published in this volume of IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science have been peer reviewed through processes administered by the proceedings Editors. Reviews were conducted by expert referees to the professional and scientific standards expected of a proceedings journal published by IOP Publishing.

It is often overlooked pollution control itself may not be entirely free from adverse impact on the environment if considered from a more holistic perspective. For example mechanised wastewater treatment is energy intensive and so has a carbon footprint because of the need to move air to supply oxygen to the aerobic treatment process. The aerobic treatment process then results in excess bio-sludge which requires disposal and if such is not appropriately performed, then there is risk of surface and groundwater contamination. This presentation explores the changes which have been investigated and are beginning to be implemented in wastewater, sludge, and agro-industrial wastes management which are more environmentally benign. Three examples shall be used to illustrate the discussion. The first example uses the conventional sewage treatment system with a unit process arrangement which converts carbonaceous pollutants from soluble and colloidal forms to particulate forms with an aerobic process before attempting energy recovery with an anaerobic process. Such an arrangement does, however, result in a negative energy balance. This is not withstanding the fact there is potentially more energy in sewage than is required to treat it if that energy can be effectively harvested. The latter can be achieved by removing the carbonaceous pollutants before the aerobic process and thereby using the aerobic process for polishing instead of treating. The carbonaceous pollutants so recovered then becomes the feed for the anaerobic process. Unfortunately conventional anaerobic sludge digestion only removes 35-45% of the organic material fed. Since biogas production (and hence energy recovery) is linked to the amount of organic material which can be degraded anaerobically, the effectiveness of the anaerobic digestion process needs to be improved. Contrary to a commonly held belief wherein methanogenesis is the "bottleneck" in anaerobic processes, hydrolysis is in sludge digestion. Hydrolysis can be enhanced thermally, chemically and biologically. With better anaerobic digestion, the digestate would have more N and P released. The digestate can be blended with organic fertilizers which have been augmented with microbes capable of producing phytohormones. The latter enable crop plants to use inorganic fertilizers more effectively and hence reducing the quantity of inorganic fertilizers required significantly. Use of such organic fertilizers rejuvenates soils which have been subjected to prolonged application of inorganic fertilisers since the latter can result in stagnating or even declining crop yields.

Sanitation is essential for promoting health, preventing environment pollution, conserving ecosystem, and recovering and recycling resources. Therefore, it can be said that sanitation is closely related to such current global issues as poverty, urban slum, conservation of ecosystem, and resources management. Namely, the question, "How can we handle the waste from 10 billion people in future?" is a global environmental problem to be solved. In developing world, population is growing rapidly especially in urban slums and they have still high under 5 mortality and poverty issues. It also reported that 2.4 billion people are still using unimproved sanitation facilities, including 946 million people who are still practicing open defecation in 2015 (UN, 2015). On the other hand, depopulation and aging are progressing especially in rural area of developed world. Based on the above mentioned background, new research project on sanitation value chain has started. This is a collaboration project with LIPI, RIHN (Research Institute of Humanity and Nature, Kyoto) and HU (Hokkaido University). The concept of the sanitation value chain and the brief summary of the project are discussed in the keynote presentation. The concept of sanitation value chain proposed in the project : The project is proposing new concept, Sanitation Value Chain, which has the following basic policies: 1) Put values of people/and community in the centre of discussion, and prepare sanitation system to drive this value chain; 2) Design the sanitation system by focusing on incentive for individual users and community; 3) Recognize a sanitation system as an integrated system with social and technical systems; 4) Design the sanitation system by making a good matching between social characteristics and prerequisites of the technologies. The goals of the research are 1) To propose the Sanitation Value Chain as a common solution for both developing and developed countries, 2) To show the validity of the Sanitation Value Chain by pilot study on co-creation of the value chain at developing countries and Japan, 3) To contribute to making interdisciplinary academic foundation on sanitation.

Indonesia is a big country with circa 250 million population, with more than 500 Local Governments and they are going to improve their municiple solid waste dumping method from Open Dumping to Sanitary Landfill (SLF) and to promote Reduce-Reuse-Recycling (3R) since many years ago, and it is strengthened by issuing of Solid Waste Management Act No.18/2008, MSW Government Regulation No.12/2012 and other regulations which are issued by Central Government and Local Governments. During "Water and Sanitation Decade 1980-1990" through "Integrated Urban Infrastructures Development Program" some pilot project such as 30 units of 3R station were developed in the urban areas, and modified or simplification of SLF call Controlled Landfill (CLF) were implemented. In the year of 2002 about 45 units of composting pilot projects were developed under "Western Java Environmental Management Project", and the result was notified that some of them are not sustain because many aspects. At the beginning of 2007 until now, some pilot projects of 3R were continued in some cities and since 2011 some Waste Banks are growing fast. In the year of 2014 was recorded that of 70 % of 3Rs in Java Island well developed (2014, Directorate of Environment Sanitation Report), and in the year of 2012 was recorded that development of Communal Waste Banks were growing fast during two months from 400 units to 800 units (2012, Ministry of Environment report), now more Communal Waste Banks all ready exist. After the last overview monitoring activity by Ministry of Environment and JICA (2008), because of lack of data is very difficult to give current accurate information of Municiple Solid Waste Handling in Indonesia. Nevertheless some innovation are developed because of impact of many pilot projects, Adipura City Cleanest Competition among Local Governments and growing of the spirit of autonomous policy of Local Governments, but some Local Governments still dependence on Central Government support, both technically and non technically aspects such as new appropriate technology development, new integration management especially between formal and informal organizations, acceleration of community education/empowerment, new required regulations development and law enforcement support.

Political will of government. In the beginning, government and people of Indonesia follow the paradigm that municipal solid waste management could be managed by Collecting-Transferring-Dumping system only. This paradigm is appropriate if no problem increase of land providing for solid waste dumping site. Most of local governments are not able to decide it because so many aspects and complexity of problems such as choosing an appropriate technology, finding location for solid waste transfer stations and dumping site, developing of waste management, limitation of affordability, improving people behaviour to increase their low health environment consciousness, as well as lack of professional staffs. Indonesia Ministry of Environment who is responsible for solid waste handling regulations and Ministry of Public Works who is responsible for urban infrastructures development have changed their paradigm that in municipal solid waste handling it is better to reduce as soon as possible. The new approach is to introduce 3R methods from the sources to the solid waste dumping site for minimizing cost of transportation and dumping site area. The Municipal Solid Waste Management Law no 18/2008 stated that municipal solid waste handling consists of Reduction-Reuse-Recycling of waste and running waste management services such as collection of the rest to transport, treat and dumping in the end of the system. Based on the Autonomous Law, the local governments are still the main responsible governments to handle municipal solid waste management in their administrative area.

Community participation. During the last few years many solid waste communal and non-governmental organizations were grown and developed, some solid waste communal leaders were born, and solid waste handling motivation and participation of community are grown. To accelerate this situation, the government introduces many training and education to produce more municipal solid waste handling facilitators. Since 2007, environment sanitation motivation activities runs through the yearly Sanitation Jamboree that educate, short train, motivate junior school children and competition among other.

Technology innovation. Local governments, with or without central government support, are being to make some improvement how to handle municipal solid waste and through Sister City Program, many innovations were developed such as in Surabaya City (home Takakura composter), Depok (waste separation and composting), Bogor City (management), Malang City, Makasar City and others. The new Closing the Loops of solid waste handling approaches should be introduced in the future to break the bottle neck that always happened in the past. Integration between solid waste management and the farming activities, land plantation rehabilitations, city landscaping and gardening is very urgent to develop, including integration of 3R stakeholders in the region.

The challenges. The municipal solid waste problem in urban areas is relative more complicated compared with the same problem in the rural areas. Accurate data collection and analyzing periodically is very important. Road map development and mobilizing of all stake holders both in central government and in local government such as NGOs, private sectors, education and research institutions, civil societies and the community are very urgent. New research action is required to find our new urban municipal solid waste characteristic and our appropriate technology and management to give some input to the central government, local governments and the community or others who involve in the municipal solid waste handling due to the recent fast growing of urban people income and changing of their life style.

Conclusion. For the future, the strengthening of central and local governments' political will is still required including financial mobilization, community education and/or empowerment, law enforcement, technical innovations, management development, providing required urban and regional solid waste management infrastructures, and Public Private Partnership promotion.

Sustainable development is an integrity of multidiscipline concept combining ecological, social and economic aspects to construct a liveable human living system. The sustainable development can be support through the development of green materials. Green materials offers a unique characteristic and properties including abundant in nature, less toxic, economically affordable and versatility in term of physical and chemical properties. Green materials can be applied for a numerous field in science and technology applications including for energy, building, construction and infrastructures, materials science and engineering applications and pollution management and technology. For instance, green materials can be developed as a source for energy production. Green materials including biomass-based source can be developed as a source for biodiesel and bioethanol production. Biomass-based materials also can be transformed into advanced functionalized materials for advanced bio-applications such as the transformation of chitin into chitosan which further used for biomedicine, biomaterials and tissue engineering applications. Recently, cellulose-based material and lignocellulose-based materials as a source for the developing functional materials attracted the potential prospect for biomaterials, reinforcing materials and nanotechnology. Furthermore, the development of pigment materials has gaining interest by using the green materials as a source due to their unique properties. Eventually, Indonesia as a large country with a large biodiversity can enhance the development of green material to strengthen our nation competitiveness and develop the materials technology for the future.

Terapon jarbua fish is a widespread species distributed mainly in the Indo-West Pacific region and occurs in shallow coastal waters, mangroves and freshwater. In West-Java of Indonesia, the consumption of T. jarbua was not bound to arouse interest, but otherwise the fish contain the important protein, such as peptone. Peptone is used to support the growth of bacteria as nitrogen source. The present study was aimed to optimize the fish peptone of T. jarbua using papain enzyme concentration and to characterize the fish peptone product. The parameter of fish peptone development was enzyme concentration (0.1-0.5%), temperature (50-65°C), hydrolysis time (4-7 h) and pH (5-8). The fish peptone product was characterized on the content of soluble protein, N-amino acid, AN/TN, and growth curve of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The optimum fish peptone production was obtained with 0.2% of papain enzyme pH 7 at 65°C for 4 hr. The soluble protein content was of 3,63 mg/ml, N-amino content 0.29%, and AN/TN 0.54%. Fish peptone of T. jarbua was more selective for E. coli than S. aureus.

Metal nanoparticle is a great interest to researches due to its applications toward catalysis, sensors, and drug delivery. Biosynthesis of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) using aqueous leaf extract of Polycias fruticosa (PFE) is reported in this article. PFE plays a role as reductor and stabilizer of AuNPs. The formation of PFE-AuNPs under radiation of natrium lamp for 15 min was monitored by UV – Vis spectrophotometer. The growth process and stability of PFE-AuNPs was observed from the colour and absorbance change in the wavelength range of 529-533 nm. The optimum synthesis condition of PFE-AuNPs was obtained at 0.06% (w/v) of PFE concentration. Size and its distribution of PFE-AuNPs were identified by particle size analyzer (PSA) as 35.02 nm and stable up until 21 days. The stable PFE-AuNPs was further characterized by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy to identify the functional group in phenolic compound of PFE interact with AuNps.

Skins and seeds of grape are waste generated from food industry. These wastes contain nutrients of which able to be utilized as an important source for antioxidant metabolite production. Through an environmentally friendly process, natural antioxidant material was produced. This study aimed to generate antioxidant compounds by liquid fermentation. Optimization was carried out by using Schizosaccharomyces cerevisiae in Katu leaf substrate. Optimization variables through response surface methodology (RSM) were of sucrose concentration, skins and seeds of grape concentration, and pH. Results showed that the optimum conditions for antioxidant production were of 5 g/L sucrose, 5 g/L skins and seed at pH 5, respectively. The resulted antioxidant activity was of 1.62 mg/mL. Mathematical model of variance analysis using a second order polynomial corresponding to the resulted data for the antioxidant was of 20.70124 – 3.86997 A – 0.65996 B – 1.88367 C + 0.19634 A² – 0.016638 B² + 0.28848 C² + 0.26980 AB – 0.068333 AC – 0.12367 BC. From the gained equation, the optimum yield from all variables was significant. Chemical analysis of the antioxidant was carried out using 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH).

Broaching is one of the most severe metal cutting operation that requires the use of cutting fluids formulated with extreme pressure (EP) additives to minimize metal-to-metal contact and improve tool life. Enhancement of EP performances of the cutting fluids can be achieved by addition of sulphur containing compounds that will allow the formation of metal sulfide film that has low shear strength and good antiweld properties and acts as protection layer from wear and seizure. Most of the cutting fluids are mineral oil based. However, as regards to health and environmental issues, reseach on vegetable oil based cutting fluid have been increased recently. This paper reports a study on the sulphurization of palm oil derivatives and its usage as broaching oil. Sulphurization of the palm oil derivative was conducted via non-catalytic sulphurization using elemental sulphur at various composition and under heating of 150-160°C for 3 hr. Broaching oil was made by blending the sulphurized palm oil and additive packages. The performance parameters of the broaching oil that has been observed including load carrying capacity, wear scar diameter, corrosion protection, oxidative stability, and surface finish of workpiece. From this research, it was found that sulphurized FAME based broaching oil has excellent EP properties. The optimum formulation was obtained on composition of sulphurized FAME-mineral oil with 6% wt of sulphur. The result from the test showed that kinematic viscosity of sulphurized palm oil was about 25.3 cSt (at 40 °C), load carrying capacity was 400 kg_f, and wear scar diameter was 0.407 mm. In addition, it can be concluded that the class of corrosion protection of modified palm oil was 1.b (slight tarnish category), oxidative stability at 160 °C was obtained for 0.11 hr, and the surface roughness of workpiece was about 0.0418-0.0579 μm. These performances are comparable to commercial broaching oil. By this result, it indicates that sulphurized palm oil is applicable for industrial cutting fluids formulation.

Underutilized Oxyeleotris marmorata fish is abundant and widespread in Indonesia. The study aimed to use O. marmorata fish for peptone production using papain from dried latex of papaya fruit. The peptone was applied as nitrogen sources for bacterial growth. The resulted peptone was optimized at 50-65°C for 5-8 hr, using 0.1% of papain at pH 6.0. Characterization of peptone was based on the soluble protein content, N-amino content, % degree hydrolysis (DH), SDS PAGE profile and growth of bacteria Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The results indicated that the optimum condition for hydrolysis was at 50°C for 7 hr (p < 0.05). Fish peptone soluble protein content was of 8.6 mg/mL, α-amino was 0.59%, and AN/TN 5.47%. Sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS PAGE) profile of peptone showed a major band with molecular weight between 17-28 kDa. Fish peptone effectiveness for E. coli and S. aureus growth was similar with commercial bacterial peptone.

The major problem in heavy metal pollution is that these metals are not biodegradable and accordingly accumulate in the bodies of living organisms, causing dangerous diseases and serious cell disorder. According to World Health Organization (WHO), the long term exposure of Cr(VI) levels of over 0.1 ppm causes respiratory problems, liver and kidney damage, and carcinogenicity.Due to its easy operation and of various cheap adsorbents development, adsorption has been proved to be efficient and most economically attractive technique and feasible to the removal of toxic heavy metal from wastewater. The study aimed to report the removal of Cr(VI) ions from aqueous solutions through adsorption process using carboxymethyl cellulose-graft-poly(acrylic acid) (CMC-g-PAA) hydrogel as adsorbent.Effect of pH was studied to remove hexavalent chromium.Graft copolymerization of poly(acrylic acid) onto carboxymethyl cellulose was carried out in the presence of benzoyl peroxide redox initiator and methylenbisacrylamide as crosslinker agent. Batch experiments were carried out to investigate the effects ofinitial pH.The adsorption of Cr(VI) ions as a function of pH was conducted in the initial pH range of 1 to 8. The results indicated that acidic pH strongly favored the adsorption. The optimum pH for adsorption of Cr(VI) ranged from 1 to 3, and the maximum uptake of Cr(VI) from the solution was 6.53 mg/g at pH 1 and 30°C. FTIR spectroscopy, SEM analyses were performed on the adsorbent before and after Cr(VI) binding. All analyses confirmed the complexation of Cr(VI) ions on the adsorbent.

A degradable polymeric composite was prepared from polyethylene (PE) and breadfruit leaves tree powders. Breadfruit leaves tree powders were mixed with PE in an internal mixer at a temperature above the glass transition of PE without additives. Formulations were based on PE/leaves ratio of 100/0, 90/10, 85/15, 80/20 and 75/25 on a dry weight basis. The effect of leaves powders of 140 and 100 meshon the composite mechanical properties was evaluated by means of universal testing machine (UTM) and hardness Rockwell tester. The results showed increases of elastic modulus and flexural modulus of the composites with increasing leaves powders. Tensile strength, yield strength, yield strain, and hardness decreased with increasing percentage of leaves powders in the composites. Flexural strength was slightly decreased with the presence of the leaves powders but independent on the percentage of the leaves powders. In general, the composite properties of 140 mesh leaves powders were more enhanced compare with that of 100 mesh. PE/leaves composites increased water absorption and caused the bulk composite surface more porous. Hence, oxo-biodegradation processes will more easily take place in the PE/leaves composites.

Several parameters such as temperature, time of extraction, and size of simplicia play significant role in medicinal herb extraction. This study aimed to investigate the effect of those parameters on yield extract, flavonoid, and total phenolic content in water extract of Zingiber officinale. The temperatures used were 50, 70 and 90°C and the extraction times were 30, 60 and 90 min. Z. officinale in the form of powder and chips were used to study the effect of milling treatment. The correlation among those variables was analysed using ANOVA two-way factors without replication. The result showed that time and temperature did not influence the yield of extract of Powder simplicia. However, time of extraction influenced the extract of simplicia treated without milling process. On the other hand, flavonoid and total phenolic content were not influenced by temperature, time, and milling treatment.

Indonesia is a large pineapple (Ananas comosus) producing country. Food industries in Indonesia processed this fruit for new products and further resulted wastes of which cause an environmental problems. Approximately, one pineapple fruit total weight is 400 gr of which 60 g is of peel wastes. In order to reduce such pineapple peel wastes (PPW), processing to a valuable product using an environmentally friendly technique is indispensable. PPW contained phenolic compound, ferulic acid, and vitamin A and C as antioxidant. This study aimed to PPW using ethanol and water as well as to analyze its chemical properties. Both dried and fresh PPW were extracted using mixtures of ethanol and water with various concentrations ranging from 15 to 95% (v/v) at room temperature for 24 h. The chemical properties, such as antioxidant activity, total phenolic content (Gallic acid equivalent/GAE), and total sugar content were determined. The results showed that the range of Inhibition Concentration (IC)₅₀ value as antioxidant activity of extracts from dried and fresh PPW were in the range of 0.8±0.05 to 1.3±0.09 mg.mL^-1 and 0.25±0.01 to 0.59±0.01 mg.mL^-1, respectively, with the highest antioxidant activity was in water extract. The highest of total phenolic content of 0.9 mg.g^-1 GAE, was also found in water extract.

Indonesia is a country with abundant of bamboo. More than 100 species of bamboo are found in Indonesia, and the production of bamboo ranks second after China. Bamboo has great potential to be used as industrial raw materials due to its high mechanical properties. The properties of the bamboo's fiber have been widely reported by several researchers, but the rarely properties of bamboo's culm which is consist of fiber, parenchym, and conducting tissue were reported. This research aimed to identify the culm in five most common bamboos in Indonesia namely Bamboo Temen (Gigantochloa Atter), Bamboo Apus (Gigantochloa Apus Kurz), Bamboo Kuning (Bambusa vulgaris schard var. Vitata), Bamboo Gombong (Gigantochloa pseudoarundinacea), and Bamboo Hitam (Gigantochloa verticillata). Properties identification were on the density, morphology, tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity. The density of different types of bamboo's culm varied from 0.54 to 0.78 g/cm³. Morphology of culm showed hollow structure which was consist of vessel and surrounded by fibers. Tensile strength of Bamboo Temen, Bamboo Apus, Bamboo Kuning, Bamboo Gombong, and Bamboo Hitam were of 195, 179, 82, 114, and 118 MPa, respectively whereas corresponding modulus of elasticity were of 16.7; 7.5; 14.3; 16.0; and 10.1 GPa. The best mechanical performance was found in Bamboo Temen.

TiO₂-ZnO-CoO nanocomposite photocatalyst has been synthezised using sol-gel method. Titanium (IV) ethoxide, zinc acetate (Zn(CH₃COO)₂.2H₂O) and cobalt acetate (Co(C₃COO)₂.4H₂O) were used as precursors. TiO₂ and ZnO posses good photocatalytic ability in photodegradation of water pollutant. The disadvantage and weakness of photocatalytic reaction of TiO₂ and ZnO mostly happens at ultraviolet range and less at visible light. This research aimed to decrease the disadventage of TiO₂ and ZnO, using cobalt oxide. TiO₂-ZnO-CoO nanocomposite photocatalyst was characterized by using SEM-EDS and XRD. SEM analysis showed homogenous and smooth morphology of TiO₂-ZnO-CoO nanocomposite photocatalyst. EDS analysis revealed the TiO₂-ZnO-CoO nanocomposite photocatalyst had O : Ti : Co : Zn = 32.64 : 37.39 : 11.85 : 18.12. In this study, we expose effect of amount of TiO₂-ZnO-CoO nanocomposite photocatalyst, pH, and irradiation time on methylene blue dye photodegradation. Novel TiO₂-ZnO-CoO nanocomposite photocatalyst was effective in photodegradation of methylene blue dye.

Bio-Toilet technology (BT) which is appropriate for the habits of Indonesian people has been studied and developed. BT is a dry toilet technology commonly uses ligno-cellulosic waste materials as matrix to facilitate the growth of natural microbes. In aerobic condition, microbes degrade feces and urine. Mineral as the leftover of feces and urine, such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) remain in the rest of matrix waste. After certain period. matrix can be harvested and used as soil conditioner. BT uses much less water, mobile, and very useful to be applied in areas where water availability is limited. BT type with different capacities, user amounts and mixing systems has been developed using sawdust for matrix. Since corn stalk is categorized as useless and priceless waste, its application in BT is challenging. Performance of BT with corn stalk as matrix to degrade feces and urine of carnivore imitating the human waste was observed. BT M-15 manual mixing type with paddle was filled with chopped corn stalk as much as 45% of total volume. This BT was designed for 15 person as users per day if 80% reactor volume was filled with ligno-cellulosic matrix. It is assumed that 150 g of feces are discharged once per person/day and 1000 mL of urine 6-8 times per day. Start up process was made in the beginning to initialize the needed microbes in the reactor (matrix). The discharge of feces and urine were increased slowly and gradually the users were increased from 1 to 4 users per day. Performance of BT was indicated by the change in the pile that showed by moisture content, temperature and pH. C/N ratio in matrix decreased significantly from 43 to 17. This result showed that the corn stalk could be used as matrix in BT.

In this study, cotton-based cellulose was used as precursor to developed carbon nanotube–like structures through modified-pyrolysis method with iron (III) chloride hexahydrate as a catalyst. Reflux process with nitric acid was conducted to purify the resultant of carbon material. The resultant of carbon-based nanostructure were characterized systematically. X-ray diffraction spectra shows the presence of C peaks at 2θ of 26.53°, 42.26°, 44.49°, 54.63° and 77.35° and Fe peaks at 2θ of 44.1° and 64.25°. Scanning electron microscope and transmission electron microscope observation revealed that the resultant of graphitic carbon nanostructures displayed the tube-like structure. Raman spectroscopy results show the presence of D-band and G-band peaks, which confirmed the typical spectrum of carbon-based structures. The D-band peak around 1310-1330 cm^-1 was assigned to the presence of disorder in graphitic materials whereas the G-band peak around 1580-1590 cm^-1 was corresponded to the tangential vibrational of the carbon atoms. These condition is a typical spectrum of carbon nanotube-like structures. Eventually, these pyrolysis method could be anticipated as a promising strategy in order to develop the novel carbon nanostructures based on cellulosic material.

The use of edible films in food protection and preservation has recently gained more interest since they offer several advantages over synthetic packaging materials. Biocellulose (BC) offers great opportunity as edible film due to their unique physical and mechanical properties. In this study, biocellulose films were prepared by solution casting with addition of 30% carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and 30% glycerol as the homogenizer and plasticizer, respectively. Furthermore, various citrus essential oils (EOs) including lemon, lime, and sweet orange were added at 50% w/w of BC dried weight. The solutions were then cast on the tray and allowed to dry in the air convection oven at 40°C overnight. The films were characterized for water solubility, tensile strength (TS), elongation at break (EB), water vapour transmission rate (WVTR), and color. Those characteristics may influence consumer acceptability of the packaged products. Results revealed that addition of lemon and sweet orange EOs into BC-based edible film decreased water solubility and TS, but improved EB, as these oils acted as plasticizers in the film. However, different trend was observed for BC-based film incorporated with lime oil, which had higher solubility and TS, but lower EB and WVTR compared with that of control film. Addition of citrus EOs into BC-based films did not have much effect on color properties as stated in L*, a*, and b* values.

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is a potential material that can be converted into bio-oil through thermal degradation process or pyrolysis. The efficiency and productivity of pyrolysis can be increased with the use of natural catalyst like kaolin. The addition of catalyst also reduces the overall cost of conversion process. In this study conversion of MSW into Bio Fuel using Pyrolysis in the presence of of natural kaolin as catalyst has been investigated for 60 min at 400°C temperature. During the process 0.5 w/w catalyst to MSW ratio was maintained. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used to analyse the chemical composition of bio fuel. It is found that bio-oil production increases substantially with the use of catalyst. It is observed that the production of bio-oil is 23.6 % with the use of catalyst in process, which was only 15.2 % without the use of catalyst. The hydrocarbon range distribution of oil produced through pyrolysis reveals that gasoline and diesel fuel (C₅-C₂₀) are its main constituents. The functional group detected in bio-oil by GC-MS analysis is similar to that of diesel-48 in which paraffin and olefin are major mass species.

Nickel is a heavy metal present in many types of industrial wastewater, and its contamination to the water bodies should be prevented. The objective of this research was to study the performance of Double Chamber Electrodeposition Cell (DCEC) for nickel ion removal. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) leaves were used to separate the two chambers. The experiment was performed with synthetic electroplating wastewater in a batch system for 72 h. Changes of pH, electric current, and nickel ion concentration in the catholyte were monitored. An experiment with Single Chamber Electrodeposition Cell (SCEC) was also performed as comparison. After 72 h operation of DCEC, nickel ion concentration in the catholyte decreased from 2200 g.m^-3 to 0.4 g.m^-3, equivalent to 99.98% removal. DCEC reactor performed better than the SCEC reactor that only achieved 59% removal. The results show that an almost-complete removal of nickel ion can be achieved with DCEC. Water hyacinth leaves can be used as low-cost alternatives for industrial membranes.

Dissolved heavy metals such as Pb, Cd and Ni in natural water can be the source of harmful contaminant for human health and aquatic life in aquatic systems. Particular treatment is needed for low concentration of metals in water samples using Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (FAAS) measurement. The sample was collected from Cikapundung River in Siliwangi and Dayeuhkolot, Bandung. Back-extraction procedure was used as an alternative method for pre-concentration in trace metal analysis. Ammonium Pyrrolidine Dithiocarbamate (APDC) and Diethylammonium Diethyldithiocarbamate (DDDC) in Methyl Isobuthyl Ketone (MIBK) were used as chelating agent. In this study, the application of back-extraction procedure using APDC/DDDC chelating agent in MIBK resulted the detection limit of 2.2 μg/L for Pb; 1.6 μg/L for Cd; and 1.0 μg/L for Ni. The result showed that sensitivity was increased 4 times for Pb, 6 times for Ni, and none for Cd. The highest concentration of Pb in Cikapundung River was found 8.0 μg/L. All Ni concentration in water samples were under limit of detection. Method validation was conducted in this study and found that the value of correlation coefficient (r) for Pb, Cd and Ni was 0.9995, 0.9960 and 0.9994, respectively. The recovery value for Pb, Cd and Ni were 112.0, 81.5 and 85.9%, respectively in Cikapundung River, and 119.0, 83.5 and 85.9 %, respectively, in groundwater samples. The value of Relative Standard Deviation (RSD) for Pb, Cd and Ni in Cikapundung River were 2.01, 2.15 and 6.40%, respectively. On the other hand, the value of RSD of Pb, Cd and Ni in groundwater were 2.70, 3.30 and 7.69%, respectively. In conclusion, back-extraction method can be applied as pre-concentration for low concentration of Pb and Ni in river water samples.

The presence of bromuconazole fungicide pollutant in organic waste anaerobic fermentation was carried out as well as the influence phenol and benzoate, and biodegradation of bromuconazole. Bromuconazole is a fungicide effective against Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and fungi imperfecti in cereals, grapes, top fruits and vegetables. It is also effective against Alternaria and Fusarium sp. The remaining fungicide in leaves might contaminates landfill. One month of organic waste added with bromuconazole was anaerobically incubated in 500 mL bottles at 30°C without shaking in dark room. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) with UV detector and a 100 RP 185μm Lichrosphere column was used to determine bromuconazole concentration. Methane content was determined by Gas Chromatography (GC) method equipped with a flame ionization detector and a metal column packed with 5% neopentyl glycol sebacate and 1% H₃PO₄ on Chromosorb W-AW (mesh 80-100). After incubation for 225 days, bromuconazole of 200 mg/L inhibited the production of methane (99.5 mM) significantly, but did not inhibit the production of volatile fatty acids. The addition of 100 mg/L phenol or 146 mg/L benzoate increased the production of methane, 143 mM and 135.2 mM, respectively compared with control (121.8 mM). In anaerobic conditions, the presence of toxic pollutants such as fungicide bromuconazole in landfills sites may cause further problems with the accumulation of volatile fatty acids in leachate. Further study to determine the threshold, the presence of bromconazole in low concentration (less than 200 mg/L) on the methane production is recommended.

The research aimed to analyse the flow rate of the wastewater inside reactor tanks which were placed a number of bamboo cutting. The resistance of wastewater flow inside reactor tanks might not be occurred and produce biogas fuel optimally. Wastewater from eleven tofu factories was treated by multi-stages anaerobic process to reduce its organic pollutant and produce biogas. Biogas plant has six reactor tanks of which its capacity for waste water and gas dome was 18 m³ and 4.5 m³, respectively. Wastewater was pumped from collecting ponds to reactors by either serial or parallel way. Maximum pump capacity, head, and electrical motor power was 5m³/h, 50m, and 0.75HP, consecutively. Maximum pressure of biogas inside the reactor tanks was 55 mbar higher than atmosphere pressure. A number of 1,400 pieces of cutting bamboo at 50-60 mm diameter and 100 mm length were used as bacteria growth media inside each reactor tank, covering around 14,287 m² bamboo area, and cross section area of inner reactor was 4,9 m². In each reactor, a 6 inches PVC pipe was installed vertically as channel. When channels inside reactor were opened, flow rate of wastewater was 6x10^-1 L.sec^-1. Contrary, when channels were closed on the upper part, wastewater flow inside the first reactor affected and increased gas dome. Initially, wastewater flowed into each reactor by a gravity mode with head difference between the second and third reactor was 15x10^-2m. However, head loss at the second reactor was equal to the third reactor by 8,422 x 10^-4m. As result, wastewater flow at the second and third reactors were stagnant. To overcome the problem pump in each reactor should be installed in serial mode. In order to reach the output from the first reactor and the others would be equal, and biogas space was not filled by wastewater, therefore biogas production will be optimum.

A study on the presence of carbofuran was conducted in Cikapundung river from an agricultural zone of the Lembang, West-Java, Indonesia. The present study aimed to determine the trace carbofuran in river water using LC-MS/MS. Extraction and purification of carbofuran was carried out simultaneously by Solid Phase Extraction (SPE) system with C18 sorbent. The procedure was evaluated by carbofuran recovery determination. Recovery was studied by spike technique with the addition of 2 and 5 ng/g carbofuran in river water sample. The recovery were of 83.87 and 115.88 % with relative standard deviation (RSD) of 6.28 and 0.47 % respectively. Carbofuran contained in Cikapundung river water samples was of 0.2898 ng/g.

Lusaka, the capital city of Zambia, has two million inhabitants with 70% residing in peri-urban areas. Ninety (90) % of this population employ pit latrines for excretion generating approximately 22,680 tons of faecal sludge per annum. This sludge is inadequately managed hence of the generated amount, over 60% remains within the residential environment thereby compromising both the environment and public health. To foster a solution to this problem, a study was commissioned to assess faecal sludge valorisation potential and how it would impact on Faecal Sludge Management. The study evaluated policy, institutional and regulatory frameworks, sanitation practices including latrine construction and usage aspects and also characterised the faecal sludge for selected parameters relevant to valorisation. Four peri-urban areas were adopted as study sites. Policy issues together with existing institutional and regulatory frameworks were assessed through literature review. Sanitation practices were evaluated through physical observations, focus group discussions, interviews and questionnaire administration. Faecal sludge characterisation was through sampling and analysis. It was observed that there are policy gaps in fostering faecal sludge valorisation. Sanitation practices and latrines construction also do not favour valorisation. The quality of the raw sludge has potential for valorisation though again, some parameters like solid waste content require drastic changes in sanitation practices in order not to compromise the reuse potential of the sludge. It was concluded that if faecal sludge management is to be enhanced through valorisation, there is need to have policies promoting pit latrine faecal sludge reuse and strengthened regulatory and institutional frameworks in this respect.

In medium capacity, electroplating industry usually treats wastewater until 5 m³ per day. Heavy metal content becomes concern that should be reduced. Previous studies performed electrocoagulation method on laboratory scale, either batch or continuous. This study was aimed to compare the influence of voltage input variation into heavy metal removal in electroplating wastewater treatment using electrocoagulation process on laboratory-scale in order to determine the optimum condition for scaling up the reactor into pilot-scale. The laboratory study was performed in 1.5 L glass reactor in batch system using wastewater from electroplating industry, the voltage input varied at 20, 30 and 40 volt. The electrode consisted of aluminium 32 cm² as sacrifice anode and copper 32 cm² as cathode. During 120 min electrocoagulation process, the pH value was measured using pH meter, whereas the heavy metal of chromium, copper, iron, and zinc concentration were analysed using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). Result showed that removal of heavy metals from wastewater increased due to the increasing of voltage input. Different initial concentration of heavy metals on wastewater, resulted the different detention time. At pilot-scale reactor with 30 V voltage input, chromium, iron, and zinc reached removal efficiency until 89-98%, when copper reached 79% efficiency. At 40V, removal efficiencies increased on same detention time, i.e. chromium, iron, and zinc reached 89-99%, whereas copper reached 85%. These removal efficiencies have complied the government standard except for copper that had higher initial concentration in wastewater. Kinetic rate also calculated in this study as the basic factor for scaling up the process.

Thermal comfort in a room is one of human needs in the workplace and dwellings, so that the use of air conditioning system in tropical countries is inevitable. This equipment has an impact on the increase of energy consumption. One method of minimizing the energy use is by using the phase change material (PCM) as thermal energy storage. This material utilizes the temperature difference between day and night for the storage and release of thermal energy. PCM development on application as a material for air cooling inlet, partitioning and interior needs to be supported by the study of heat transfer characteristics when PCM absorbs heat from ambient temperature. This study was conducted to determine the heat transfer characteristics on coconut oil as a phase change material. There are three models of experiments performed in this research. Firstly, an experiment was conducted to analyze the time that was needed by material to phase change by varying the temperature. The second experiment analyzed the heat transfer characteristics of air to PCM naturally convection. The third experiment analyzed the forced convection heat transfer on the surface of the PCM container by varying the air velocity. The data of experimental showed that, increasing ambient air temperature resulted in shorter time for phase change. At temperatures of 30°C, the time for phase change of PCM with the thickness of 8 cm was 1700 min, and it was stable at temperatures of 27°C. Increasing air temperature accelerated the phase change in the material. While for the forced convection heat transfer, PCM could reduce the air temperature in the range of 30 to 35°C at about 1 to 2°C, with a velocity of 1-3 m/s.

Minimizing energy consumption in air conditioning system can be done with reducing the cooling load in a room. Heat from solar radiation which passes through the wall increases the cooling load. Utilization of phase change material on walls is expected to decrease the heat rate by storing energy when the phase change process takes place. The stored energy is released when the ambient temperature is low. Temperature differences at noon and evening can be utilized as discharging and charging cycles. This study examines the characteristics of heat transfer in walls using phase change material (PCM) in the form of encapsulation and using the sleeve as well. Heat transfer of bricks containing encapsulated PCM, tested the storage and released the heat on the walls of the building models were evaluated in this study. Experiments of heat transfer on brick consist of time that is needed for heat transfer and thermal conductivity test as well. Experiments were conducted on a wall coated by PCM which was exposed on a day and night cycle to analyze the heat storage and heat release. PCM used in these experiments was coconut oil. The measured parameter is the temperature at some points in the brick, walls and ambient temperature as well. The results showed that the use of encapsulation on an empty brick can increase the time for thermal heat transfer. Thermal conductivity values of a brick containing encapsulated PCM was lower than hollow bricks, where each value was 1.3 W/m.K and 1.6 W/m.K. While the process of heat absorption takes place from 7:00 am to 06:00 pm, and the release of heat runs from 10:00 pm to 7:00 am. The use of this PCM layer can reduce the surface temperature of the walls of an average of 2°C and slows the heat into the room.

The proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is a promising technology as an alternative green energy due to its high power density, low operating temperatures, low local emissions, quiet operation and fast start up-shutdown. In order to apply fuel cell as portable power supply, the performance investigation of small number of cells is needed. In this study, PEMFC stacks consisting of 1, 3, 5 and 7-cells with an active area of 25 cm² per cell have been designed and developed. Their was evaluated in variation of gas flow rate. The membrane electrode assembly (MEA) was prepared by hot-pressing commercial gas diffusion electrodes (Pt loading 0.5 mg/cm²) on pre-treated Nafion 117 membrane. The stacks were constructed using bipolar plates in serpentine pattern and Z-type gas flow configuration. The experimental results were presented as polarization and power output curves which show the effects of varying number of cells and H₂/O₂ flow-rates on the PEMFC performance. The experimental results showed that not only number of cells and gas flow-rates affected the fuel cells performance, but also the operating temperature as a result of electrochemistry reaction inside the cell.

Approximately, Bandung produces agricultural solid waste of 1549 ton/day. This wastes consist of wet-organic matter and can be used for bio-gas production. The research aimed to apply the available agricultural solid waste for bio-hydrogen. Biogas production was done by a serial of batches anaerobic fermentation using mix-culture bacteria as the active microorganism. Fermentation was carried out inside a 30 L bioreactor at room temperature. The analyzed parameters were of pH, total gas, temperature, and COD. Result showed that from 3 kg/day of organic wastes, various total gases of O₂, CH₄, H₂, CO₂, and C_nH_n,O₂ was produced.

Micro-credit schemes are expanding very rapidly worldwide in ecological activities. Providing gas-cooking equipments in Burkina Faso is a successful example in which the micro-credit system contributes to improve not only poor women's life but also ecological environment. In Bangladesh, a solar PV system program through micro-credit has been implemented widely and successfully: big NGOs act as equipment dealers and provide micro-credit loans to individual poor households. In contrast, there are very few cases which showed positive results in sanitation projects. Micro-credit schemes are, in principle, based on the income generated through the fund. But in usual cases, sanitation activities do not yield any income. High cost of latrine construction is another barrier. In this paper, we reviewed why we could not apply a micro-credit scheme to our "Améli-eaur project" in Burkina Faso. Common features for the success in ecological activities are 1) enough income yielded from the activity itself, 2) the strong needs from population side, and 3) established system support, both technically and administratively. If we find a way to fulfill these elements in a sanitation project, it can be a long, sustainable project.

Access to sanitation technologies remains one of the biggest challenges in sub-Saharan Africa. To overcome this gap, a sanitation project called "Ameli-EAUR" translated from French as improvement of water and sanitation in urban and rural areas, was implemented in Burkina Faso for 5 years (2010-2016). The technologies from the project were designed on the basis of agro-sanitation concept, leading to package containing a composting toilet, a grey water treatment facility and a set of urine collection and treatment. The study aimed to evaluate of Ameli-EAUR project, one year after the end, and identify some key factors of sustainability of technologies. As methodology, a survey and a technical diagnostic of implemented technologies were done. The results showed that, the pilot families stopped using all the technologies one year after the end of the project. However, two main lessons can be learnt: (1) in term of efficiency and effectiveness of the project the technology of composting toilet was not robust enough, leading to a rapid abandonment after the project (2) in term of impact and sustainability, the economic incentive of the resource oriented sanitation concept was very weak compared to the needed workload. The technologies development in this kind of project should be carried on and associated with a more inclusive system driven by economic incentive.

Due to the lack of rain, dry spell and agricultural insufficient inputs, agricultural yields are very low and do not allow achieving food self-sufficiency in countries such as Burkina Faso. To fight against this situation in the context of climate change, several researches have emerged such as agronomic research with the promotion of crop varieties that require little water and short growth period. The Ameli-EAUR project is another example of research. This project aimed to promote hygiene and sanitation by the use of sanitation by-product in rural and sub-urban areas of Burkina Faso. Ameli-EAUR project was initiated and implemented within five years. Completed in 2015, it appears necessary to think over its impacts on production hence the question: which lessons for the promotion of agriculture, specifically for agricultural value chains"? Based on the result of a post-survey performed one year after the end of the project, the aim of this presentation is to show that project can support the promotion of agricultural Value Chains in spite of difficulties if we take into account some parameters. To do this, we will start by presenting briefly Ameli-EAUR; then we will take stock of the project; finally, we will examine the possibilities it offers for the promotion of agricultural value chains, taking as example the vegetable gardening. We will also try to show the limits of value chains which are presented nowadays as a solution to many problems of agriculture in Africa.

Most people in low-income areas such as rural village in Africa and urban slum in Southeast Asia live with limited economic resources and poor sanitation conditions. In order to deal with the situation, many of the people have formed community-based organizations and joined the organization activities for the common purpose of improving these conditions as participatory development. This study attempts to examine and evaluate the impact of the activities in their respective local communities. From the case study in two villages of rural Senegal, self-help effort is considered essential to solve the people's income and hygiene problems through their community participation for sustainable development. For the implementation, the organizational solidarity, adequate water supply and water management are crucially needed. It is suggested to encourage community-based organizations effectively working for income improvement to also consider practicing for sanitation improvement.

The quality of water in the Saguling lake has been monitored since 1990 by the state agency for environmental control. However, no data on heavy metal in sediment had been reported. Metal pollutans have receives considerable attention due to their persistence, biogeochemical recycling, and environmental risk. The objective of this study was to assess the level contamination of heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, and Pb) in the surface sediment of the Saguling Lake West Java. Surface sediment samples were collected from 10 location of the Saguling Lake on July and November 2015. The concentration of heavy metals in the surface sediment on July and November 2015 decreased in the order of Cu>Cr>Pb>Cd and Cr>Cu>Pb>Cd respectively. Mean metals concentrations (mg/kg) in July 2015 were in the range of: Cd: 10.69-16.65, Cr: 76.67-138.38, Cu:106.02-229.54, Pb: 23.93-80.17. Mean metals concentrations (mg/kg) in November 2015 were in the range of Cd: 18.64-23.25, Cr: 152.16-197.98, Cu: 63.32-152.53, Pb: 20.31-32.74. Geochemical approaches such as contamination factor, and pollution load index were exploited for the assessment of the contamination and enrichment level of heavy metals in the lake sediment. Contamination factor and pollution load index values indicated that surface sediments around Saguling Lake were polluted with heavy metals. The finding of this study would help in formulating guidelines to control the pollution and suggested for Saguling lake revitalization.

Fish containing arsenic compound is one of the important indicators of arsenic contamination in water monitoring. The high level of arsenic in fish is due to absorption through food chain and accumulated in their habitat. Hydride generation (HG) coupled with atomic absorption spectrometric (AAS) detection is one of the most popular techniques employed for arsenic determination in a variety of matrices including fish. This study aimed to develop a method for the determination of total arsenic in fish by HG-AAS. The method for sample preparation from American of Analytical Chemistry (AOAC) Method 999.10-2005 was adopted for acid digestion using microwave digestion system and AOAC Method 986.15 – 2005 for dry ashing. The method was developed and validated using Certified Reference Material DORM 3 Fish Protein for trace metals for ensuring the accuracy and the traceability of the results. The sources of uncertainty of the method were also evaluated. By using the method, it was found that the total arsenic concentration in the fish was 45.6 ± 1.22 mg.Kg^-1 with a coverage factor of equal to 2 at 95% of confidence level. Evaluation of uncertainty was highly influenced by the calibration curve. This result was also traceable to International Standard System through analysis of Certified Reference Material DORM 3 with 97.5% of recovery. In summary, it showed that method of preparation and HG-AAS technique for total arsenic determination in fish were valid and reliable.

Mass death of carp fish in reservoirs and lakes in Indonesia is due to the up-welling phenomenon of ammonia generates from the decomposition of fish feed remaining in the bottom of the lakes/reservoirs by microbes. The formation of ammonia gas is very dependent on pH. Most of the ammonia gas is formed form at the high pH value. Ammonia concentration can be determined with indophenol blue method using UV-Vis spectrophotometer. Carp fish (Cyprinus carpio of 5-6 gr was exposed to the three concentration of ammonia. Acute toxicity (LC₅₀) of ammonia (NH₃) was tested on similar sizes (5-6 g) of carp fish was maintained at three different pH levels within range of 7-9 for 96-h. Results showed that the concentration of ammonia increased at higher pH. The 96-h LC₅₀'s for exposure to ammonia were 60% (NH₃ 1.85 ppm at pH 8), 100% (NH₃ 2.16 ppm at pH 9), and insignificant result at NH₃ 1.68 ppm with pH 7.