Stakeholder perspectives on fostering the water-energy-food nexus in Jordan: lessons beyond agricultural water management

The first part of the study is based on a narrative literature review of available documents on the characteristics of the country and the local status quo of the WEF nexus. A narrative review, which identifies, describes, and discusses the state-of-the-art of a specific topic or theme from a more theoretical and contextual point of view was used in this analysis (Rother 2007, Snyder 2019). This approach enables the summarizing or synthesizing of what has been written on a particular topic to appreciate the value of existing information, condition, or status independently from comparative analysis (Sylvester et al 2013, Mauer and Venecek 2022).

A narrative approach was selected for this review for three reasons (i) the majority of relevant WEF documents are in official government, private sector and non-state actors documents that are not indexed in common scientific databases (ii) WEF is a relatively new concept for the country and the region, and therefore is not yet readily available in context-specific ways for Jordan in databases and (iii) it was anticipated that important information on WEF-nexus in Jordan is in multiple languages specifically English and Arabic. A narrative reviews is therefore suitable for this task because it identifies and reviews broad published literature on a topic to capture a wide range of related subjects and intricacies without focusing on quantitative metrics, excluding other materials and/or weighing them by prevalence (Paré and Kitsiou 2017, Haddaway et al 2020). All published literature on the characteristics of the country, the status quo of the WEF sectors, and current challenges were scoped and analyzed to identify status and trends.

2.2.1. Stakeholder identification

For this study, a stakeholder is defined as a person whose work has a direct or indirect impact or connection, now or in the future, on the water, energy, and/or food/agriculture sectors in Jordan (Daher et al 2020, Rountree et al 2021). The stakeholders were brought together as part of a Nuffic-Orange Knowledge Program funded project on Earth Observation and Geoinformation Technologies to Foster Water-Energy-Food Nexus Interventions (NexusWatch). The stakeholders were selected by a theoretically based quota sample, with the intention of having a composition of people who could represent different key attributes and diversity. These include that they represented all three WEF sectors, had a balance in gender and age-groups, and had a good representation of the diverse roles and institutions in these sectors including state agencies, non-profit organizations, industry, the private sector, and academia (supplementary materials 1). There was a balance in the distribution of the stakeholders across the water, energy and food sectors (figure 1). The stakeholders were identified through peer and expert networks and were invited to participate collectively in a workshop identifying the challenges, opportunities, and sustainable pathways of WEF in the country to both identify individual and collective perspectives on WEF.

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2.2.2. Soliciting stakeholder perspectives on WEF

Jordan is the second most water scarce country worldwide, with an annual per capita water availability of about 60 m³, which is well below the global average (5500 m³) and for Middle Eastern countries (480 m³) (Al-Ansari et al 2014, Hussein 2018, Ministry of Water and Irrigation 2023b). The country's renewable water supply currently only meets about two-thirds of the population's overall water needs, with the rest compensated by groundwater, which is being abstracted faster than it is being recharged (Al-Addous et al 2023). Agriculture is by far the largest user of both surface and groundwater, consuming 62% of surface water and 47% of groundwater in the country (table 1). Jordan's total water usage in 2022 was 1.1 billion m³, of this, 519 million m3 was allocated for domestic consumption, 537 million m3 for agricultural use, and 35.2 million m³ for industrial activities (Ministry of Water and Irrigation 2023a). The country's major surface water resources, the Jordan River and the Yarmouk River, are shared with Israel and Syria which leaves only a small amount for Jordan (Daoud et al 2022).

The Disi Water Conveyance Project from the non-renewable Disi aquifer to the capital Amman, opened in July 2013, increases available resources by about 12% (Qtaishat 2020, Radaideh 2022). It is planned to bridge the remaining gap between demand and supply through increased use of reclaimed water and desalinated seawater (Daoud et al 2022, Zawahri 2023). Water scarcity impacts every aspect of Jordanian life, and it is one of the greatest challenges to economic growth and development. Water scarcity is even projected to increase due to the effects of climate change, which will result in lower and more erratic rainfall patterns and high temperatures, resulting in increased water scarcity impacts on crops and livestock (Al-Bakri et al 2013, Al Qatarneh et al 2018, Hussein 2018). The combined effects of climate change and population growth (including migration) is anticipated to put more pressure on limited land and water resources and to increase the challenge of sustainable development in Jordan.

Jordan's water sector is dealing with challenging matters that are closely related to aridity, the fast-growing population, and the geopolitical circumstances of the country. Al-Muqdadi et al (2021) describe the water situation in the country as dire and confounded by climate change and the conflicts in the region, which, apart from other things, increase pressure on infrastructure and the water supply system. In addition, water use is not efficient, and the high loss of water is also one of the other problems (Zawahri 2023). The water distribution network is deteriorating due to poor maintenance, leading to leakages and wastage (Government of Jordan 2022, Tawfik et al 2023, Zawahri 2023).

The water sector governance in Jordan is mainly organized across the different departments, and it is poor in collaborating well with other sectors and different stakeholders. Al-Masri et al (2019) highlighted the deficits in integrating WEF related policies and the importance of coherent and detailed policies which take into account the interconnections among the WEF sectors in Jordan. This split-up obstructs the achievement of sustainable water management practices. Financial constraints also prevent the enlargement of modern infrastructure and the further implementation of water-saving technology (Al-Masri et al 2019, Al-Muqdadi et al 2021).

The energy security is an important pillar for the sustainable development of Jordan. The primary energy sources for Jordan are imported oil (54%), natural gas (35%), and renewable energy (wind and solar, 7%) with the remainder coming from coal (2%) and coke (1%) (Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources 2022). Of these sources, less than 10% is locally produced, mainly in terms of renewable energy, meaning that Jordan is reliant on imported energy (Jordan Strategy Forum 2023). Currently, the country still consumes about 9.6 million cubic meters of natural gas annually in generating electricity, an amount that is still supplemented further through a partnership and connection with the regional grids (Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources 2022).

Jordan is also a node in the electrical connections of neighboring countries. Jordan's power demand is growing from two perspectives: economic growth in several sectors and population growth, both natural and through immigration from neighboring countries caused by regional instability (Abu-Rumman et al 2020). Jordan is on the path towards a clean-energy future through the promotion and adoption of renewable energy and green technologies across all sectors. Jordan's target is to have a 31% renewable energy share in its local electricity generation by 2030, with trends in the recent past showing growth in renewable energy supply in the country (figure 4). Much of the expected additional capacity will be solar PV. If the same capacity factor is maintained, an additional capacity of 3.35 GW must be installed on top of the current 2.58 GW. Jordan's electrified future is already visible if the sheer number of fully electric vehicles (EVs) flooding into the country is considered.

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There is a nationwide rush to meet the growing number of EVs by matching the infrastructure to the demand, both special electricity tariffs and countless charging points are either deployed or under development. Another tangible change is the number of technology deployment initiatives that distribute and install green and energy saving technologies across the country, such as renewably sourced rural electrification expansion, solar PV installations for town buildings, solar water heaters for residential areas, and a push to phase out costly inefficient technology in areas such as lighting.

Jordan has a land area of around 8.9 million ha with three distinct and diverse agricultural climatic zones; the Jordan Valley, the Highlands, and the Eastern Desert. According to Jordan's Fourth National Communication on Climate Change, 2023, the agricultural area in Jordan is about 400 000 ha (4.5% of Jordan's land area). The irrigated area is very limited (96 000 ha), and the majority of arable land is rainfed, but the average rainfall is below 200 mm per year in 90% of Jordan's areas, which makes it one of the world's most water-deficient countries (Anbar et al 2020, Noria Research 2022, Tawfik et al 2023). Agricultural exports account for 25% of all Jordan's exports. Although agriculture encompasses food, industrial and non-food cash crops, for this discussion, the term agriculture is limited to food production.

A considerable quantity of the Jordanian production of fruits and vegetables is exported to high-end markets such as Western and Eastern Europe, as Jordan has a competitive advantage as a supplier of fresh fruits and vegetables (MoEnv 2020, El-Zubi and Shuaibi 2021). Tomatoes are the most important crop in terms of production quantity, followed by cucumber and gherkins, potatoes, olives and watermelons, completing the top five mostly produced crops (figure 5).

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From farmers to agri-food processors, retailers, and consumers, Jordan's rich and diverse agricultural system plays a critical role in the economy. It accounts for 5.6% of the gross domestic product, contributes to national food security (Ministry of Water and Irrigation 2019). Beyond the economy, however, the agriculture sector is a critical enabler of employment, rural development, and food security, as well as being a focus for addressing many of the environmental and climate change-related challenges facing the country. The government aims to improve the exportability of agricultural goods while at the same time coping with climate change and achieving sustainable development goals.

The agriculture sector has been growing and increasing its share with a variety of lucrative investment opportunities present in Jordan's agriculture sector (Al-Addous et al 2023). However, Jordan is still a substantial net importer of food, a situation that is unlikely to change any time soon because of a myriad of factors. Boosting farmers' productivity can help them leverage the food system, earn more money from what they grow, and meet the demand coming from cities for higher-value crops.

Data is essential for science-based informed decision making in all WEF sectors. Data availability means that data must be obtainable and accessible in its original form, whether numerical or categorical. However, it is currently extremely difficult across sectors to obtain the data necessary to carry out comprehensive assessments of threats to WEF security in Jordan. Some sectors or sub-sectors cannot collect adequate observations to document their WEF resources' current state or changes. Those who are collecting data seem not willing to share or distribute it with other sectors or experts for their use, even among government agencies and ministries in the country, let alone outside government or agencies. Those few who seem willing to share either charge a fee for official data or have ridiculous protocols, bureaucracy and red tape required to get the data from them, which is very exhausting and requires. This situation presents two concurrent tragedies; (i) data collection systems are inadequate and need to be upgraded or established and (ii) already collected data sharing is so constrained to be nearly impossible to access. These attitudes towards data exchange and attempts to limit their sharing suggest that more proactive initiatives and policies on data exchange and alternative observational systems need to be developed to avert a strategic knowledge gap.

The effective implementation of a WEF nexus approach relies heavily on robust data and information availability, sharing mechanisms, and further sustainability. Data collection comes at a cost, and probably cost-sharing mechanisms for data collection are necessary, but these can be mutually offset as each sector requires data. Types of data can be categorized into water data, food and agriculture data, energy data, and cross-cutting or integrated data. The required water data includes water availability and sources, water demand and consumption, water quality, water infrastructure and trends in these variables. For energy, data on production, consumption, efficiency, energy security, availability and sustainability. In the food sector, the required information pertains to agricultural land use, crop and livestock production, supply chains, and food quality. Cross-cutting or integrated data include data on climate parameters, socioeconomic data, technology development and deployment, economic indicators and policy frameworks.

Earth observation data is crucial in fostering the WEF nexus approach by providing comprehensive, timely, and accurate information that helps integrate and manage these interdependent resources effectively. Earth observation data is useful in WEF initiatives for monitoring and assessment of quantity and quality of water, agriculture and energy resources. It also allows data to be seamlessly integrated across the water, energy, and food sectors in the country for decision-making. For example, it can be used to analyze the impacts of water usage in agriculture on energy consumption or the effects of energy production on water and food resources. Earth observation data also forms an important part as input for modeling and simulation necessary for decision support for policy making, risk management, resource allocation and response.

Among the most limiting factors to achieving interlinkages in the water, energy and food sectors in the Jordan is limited funding resources for a WEF nexus approach. While investments in the WEF sectors have been increasing over the past years, there still remain financial gaps in managing the often-limited resources in an integrated manner. As in other countries, budgeting and resource allocation is centralized and facing increasing pressures from other economic sectors. As it stands, there are many projects planned for implementation in the separate water, energy and agriculture sectors of the country. For example, for the water sector the planned Aqaba-Amman Conveyor project, which is crucial for boosting Jordan's water supply, will impose a substantial financial burden. Renewable energy (solar and wind) expansion in rural areas in conjunction with private sector players will also cost substantial investment. In the same manner, there are many capital projects on enhancing and new schemes for fish farming, fruit production, mushroom production, and the cultivation of new agricultural commodities to meet increasing demand and markets.

While these individual sector projects are important and budgeted for using various financial resources, there is a general lack of funding for collaboration projects among the sectors. For example, from the national planning and fiscal funding, there are hardly any allocations for nexus planning and implementation across sectors. The ministerial/sector allocations are not sufficient to cover needs for the sectors and therefore, there are no further resources that can be allocated for cross-sectoral engagement, planning and implementation. Thus, funding for cross-sectoral implementation is therefore limited and a hindrance to achieving a viable WEF nexus approach. In this regard, dedicated funding is an important pillar for implementation in Jordan.

The current sector ecosystem lacks collaboration across players in the country in order to build an integrated approach to water, energy and food security. Many factors explain the lack of collaboration between partners in the WEF sectors. One of them is the lack of multi-disciplinary training in staff in line ministries, private sector workers and other stakeholders. Therefore, it is difficult for a water engineer to think along the lines of an agriculture specialist or electrical engineer. For many years people have been trained in specific disciplines and they carry their routines for the rest of their working lives according to their line training. It therefore becomes difficult to foster collaboration and cross-sector discourse between sectors due to a lack of understanding of each other as individuals, organizations and ministries continue to work in silos.

Secondly, there is a lack of a national WEF nexus platform to enhance stakeholder engagement and discussions on WEF nexus issues. Such a platform is necessary to build an understanding among people working in different sectors, appreciating each other's work and identifying potential areas of entry in each other's sector for national good. Thirdly, there is a lack of collaboration because the full understanding of the dynamic relationships between the entire WEF nexus sectors is limited, especially at regional and national scales. Thus, a new conceptual approach and a paradigm shift is required to foster collective working across WEF sectors.

Finally, many approaches and models used by WEF sectors have been developed for specific disciplines. Examples include hydrological models, crop models, climate models, econometric models, energy models, and biodiversity models. It takes considerable time and effort for people to master the specific uses of these models. Therefore, expecting that other non-specialist users will understand and apply them is an over stretch. It is therefore only through inter-sectoral collaboration that model coupling across sectors can be made possible with backward and forward linkages.

One of the key requirements for operationalization of the WEF nexus approach in Jordan is to have clear responsibilities and awareness about these responsibilities. This entails clearly specifying who is doing what and with whom. This enables the individual parts to work together to achieve common goals in Jordan and the region. However, the individual mandates at the ministerial/department/agency/company level are clearly defined and fairly understood, but the responsibilities in the broader framework of WEF are not clearly defined or understood. This is especially regarding what needs to be done beyond the current responsibilities. The concept of WEF is in its nascent phase; therefore, many aspects are not yet clearly understood by the sector players, limiting effectiveness and impact of these sectors on development. Therefore, clearly defining roles and responsibilities within WEF is fundamental to operationalize it.

Implementation of WEF activities in most cases follows project-based implementation and once the project is completed, there is no follow-up or uptake of the established systems to ensure sustainability. It is imperative that WEF activities be mainstreamed in local, regional and national development planning so that design and implementation can be sustained beyond the project periods. This requires capacity building, strong frameworks for continuity and long-term thinking beyond the 3–5 years usual project periods. Actors are also working in silos implementing scattered projects across the country and in some cases duplicating activities and services. In this regard, to truly benefit from WEF nexus initiatives, sustainability thinking and cohesion of efforts in both planning and implementing WEF programs are absolutely vital for impact.

Related to the lack of collaboration and limited understanding, mistrust between and among players in the WEF sector is breeding. There are many justified reasons for mistrust to limit cooperation among players in WEF. One of the key reasons is the rent-seeking setup among players, where organizations only see each other as potential clients and not as partners. For example, water sector players may see people in agriculture as clients that pay water abstraction tariffs, and energy sector players see those in agriculture as customers of energy and agriculture players consider both energy and water sectors as value chain suppliers for their business.

The backward and forward linkages beyond these supplier-client relationships are difficult to foster as the other always feels exploited by the other, and any attempts to build relationships are considered avenues to expand extractive opportunities. While this is rife between and among private sector players in Jordan that seek to maximize returns, this also happens in public sector agencies and utilities. Thus, the long road of building trust among and within the organizations is therefore needed to achieve the WEF nexus in the country.

As a key sustainable development facet, WEF sectors are a mirror of society and therefore, the reality is that many marginalized groups bear the brunt of inaccessibility to both services and wheels of power. These marginalized individuals and groups do not have a voice or agency regarding WEF issues. Exclusion happens on the facets of their identity such as ethnicity, social status, gender, and/or disability status, increasing their obstacles to access and decision making. For example, women and other marginalized groups are absent from decision-making roles in WEF sectors in Jordan. Thus, the management of water, energy and food sectors can be conduits of exclusion and disparity. This is especially interesting for Jordan, a country with a significant number of refugees from regional strife and conflict. These may represent an important pool of talent in managing water, energy and agriculture, but they find themselves in the unfortunate circumstances of being excluded. It is critical for WEF success that all voices are heard, listened to, and respected, as this is the first step towards building trust.

While stakeholders may have different perspectives, values, or priorities on WEF issues, they can still work together towards a common goal. The lack of inclusivity is rooted in the fact that WEF governance and institutions, processes, and practices at all scales involve multistakeholder dialogue that then reflects on societal order and limits the ability to understand underrepresented communities. Inclusivity holds so much potential to unlock impact of WEF for widespread and prolonged impact for sustainable development in Jordan.