Africa’s critical minerals can power the global low-carbon transition

The global shift towards low-carbon economies and societies is expected to result in a substantial surge in the demand for critical minerals. Endowed with at least a fifth of the world’s reserves in a dozen minerals, Africa can play a pivotal role in facilitating the global transition away from fossil fuels. In this paper, we argue that, for this to happen, Africa needs to act now to convert its natural assets into sustainable comparative advantages for a resource-based industrialisation. This will require proactive measures to ensure strict compliance with the highest standards of governance and transparency, as well as to uphold social values such as safeguarding basic rights of affected individuals and communities and sound environmental management to avoid falling into a new resource curse. This also requires a renewed global raw material diplomacy in which Africa manages the geopolitics of critical minerals, identifying strategic global alliances to unleash economic potential, create local content in the mining sector, develop domestic productive capacity, and foster sustainable development.


Introduction
Climate change is one of the greatest challenges of the 21st century.However, by taking steps to lessen its effects and achieving the objectives outlined in the Paris Agreement, particularly the goal of keeping the global temperature rise this century well below 2 • C above pre-industrial levels and striving to limit it to 1.5 • C, it is possible to prevent the negative effects of climate change.In order to achieve this, it is imperative to reach net-zero emissions globally by the middle of the century or earlier (IPCC 2018), by transforming current production and consumption systems and transitioning from fossil fuels-based systems to more resilient, inclusive and clean energy systems in which renewable energy sources as well as lithium-ion batteries play a critical role.
Significant quantities of critical minerals, which are not only essential to produce clean energy technologies (such as solar panels, wind turbines, battery storage, hydrogen electrolysers, and fuel cells), but also electric vehicles (EVs) will be required for the global low-carbon transition.
A concerted effort to reach the goals of the Paris Agreement will require a fourfold increase in the demand for minerals to support the development and deployment of clean energy technologies by 2040.An even faster transition to reach net-zero emissions globally by 2050, would require a six-fold increase in mineral inputs by 2040 compared to present levels (IEA 2021a).
Africa is strategically positioned to facilitate the shift towards low-carbon systems and to capitalise on this transition for a resource-driven industrialisation.
In fact, global net-zero aspirations will be impossible to meet without Africa's critical minerals.Indeed, Africa holds approximately 30% of the world's reserves of a dozen minerals including uranium, bauxite, chromium, cobalt, copper, gold, iron, lithium, manganese, platinum, and bauxite, which play an important role in global value chains (GVCs) as the backbone of renewable energy infrastructure and associated components.Given the global competition for access to these resources and the geopolitical perspective of reducing dependencies on probable risky suppliers of green minerals (Müller 2023), Africa stands to benefit

The role of critical minerals in clean energy transitions
The transition to a net-zero economy and the resulting demand for EVs, wind turbines, and solar panels for new electricity connections will require huge quantities of low-carbon transition minerals (World Bank 2017, IEA 2021b).A low-carbon future will be very mineral intensive because clean technologies like solar photovoltaic (PV), wind, geothermal, and EVs are more mineral and metal intensive relative to their fossil fuel-based counterparts.For instance, the production of a typical EV needs approximately six times more minerals than a conventional car.Compared to natural gas, offshore wind technology requires 12 times as many metals and minerals per megawatt (MW) of electricity produced and onshore wind plant requires nine times more mineral resources than a gas-fired power plant (IEA 2021b) (figure 1).
Since 2010, the average amount of minerals required for a new unit of electricity generating capacity has risen by about 50% due to the increasing proportion of renewables in the electricity mix.A world climate trajectory aligned with the Paris Agreement (1.5 • C-2 • C or below) will require an additional increase in the contribution of clean energy technologies to total demand over the next two decades (figures 2 and 3).
The increased demand for renewable energy technologies and EV batteries relies heavily on critical minerals like copper, nickel, aluminium, lithium, cobalt and rare earth elements such as neodymium, praseodymium, and dysprosium, among others.These minerals are essential for producing clean energy technologies, and their availability and responsible extraction are key factors in ensuring the successful transition to a low-carbon economy.
The types of mineral resources used vary by technology.Lithium, nickel, cobalt, manganese, and graphite are crucial to battery performance, longevity, and energy density.Electricity networks need a huge amount of copper and aluminium, with copper being a cornerstone for all electricity-related technologies (IEA 2021b).Table 1 provides an overview of the most important clean transition minerals and their relevance to each technology identified in the technology-based mitigation scenarios.
Extraction of energy transition minerals will need to increase five-fold by 2050 to meet demand for clean energy technologies (World Bank 2017).This translates to more than three billion tonnes of minerals and metals that will be needed for wind, solar and geothermal power, as well as energy storage.
The total demand for minerals from renewable energy technologies is projected to double by 2040 under the more conservative (Stated Policies Scenario, STEPS) scenario and quadruple under a scenario that meets the Paris Agreement goals (Sustainable Development Scenario, SDS) (IEA 2021b).Electric car production is the major driver of the world's projected critical mineral demand, responsible for 50%-60% of the overall total, followed by electricity networks and solar PVs production (35%-45%), and then other technologies for the remaining 5%.In the period leading up to 2040, the STEPS and SDS forecasts predict that the demand for minerals used in EVs and battery storage will increase by a factor of approximately tenfold and thirtyfold, respectively.From a mineral's perspective, copper, graphite, and nickel are the major drivers in terms of volume.In the SDS, lithium has the highest growth rate, with demand increasing by over 40 times.Demand for nickel and zirconium, which are used in electrolysers, and copper and platinum-group metals, which are   used in fuel cell EVs, is soaring due to a growing interest in the hydrogen economy necessary to meet the SDS scenario.Demand for REEs-primarily for EV motors and wind turbines-triples under the STEPS scenario and nearly quadruples under the SDS alternative (IEA 2021b).

Role of Africa in global energy transition
Africa is home to most of the minerals that are essential for renewable and low-carbon technologies.It holds 30% of the world's critical mineral reserves and is already a major producer of several of these minerals, including cobalt, copper, lithium, manganese and rare earth elements (table 2 and figure 4).The continent can thus potentially become a major supplier and active user of critical minerals to the global market.For instance, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Madagascar, and Morocco have over 50% of global deposits and produce approximately 70% of cobalt-a vital mineral required for the development of battery storage and EVs (USGS 2023).Guinea accounts for approximately 24% of global deposits and producing approximately 23% of global production of Bauxite, a crucial material used in the manufacture of solar PV components.Platinum group metals are critical for reducing carbon intensive and root sectors, as well as generating green hydrogen.Africa (South Africa-90% and Zimbabwe-2%) possesses around 92% of global reserves, with both countries generating approximately 82% of platinum globally in 2022.Graphite is an important material that is used in lithium-ion batteries and is required for EVs and energy storage devices.The combined graphite reserves of Madagascar, Mozambique, and Tanzania, which account for more than one-fifth of the world's reserves, will play a critical role in the development of lithium-ion batteries, with the critical mineral serving as an essential element for the development of EVs and battery storage technologies.In addition, the continent holds over 30% of the world's manganese reserves and is one of the world's greatest manganese producers.Manganese is required for a variety of industrial processes, including the manufacture of steel, batteries, and fertilisers.Manganese demand will rise as demand for these products rises.South Africa possesses over 36% of global reserves and approximately 44% of global output in 2022 of chromium, a critical mineral in the development of low-carbon technologies such as geothermal, solar, and wind.Furthermore, Africa holds roughly 15% of the world's rare earth reserves, a class of minerals used in wind turbines, solar panels, electric car components, and a variety of other technologies such as magnets, sensors, and lasers, with the DRC producing the most.
The above underlines Africa's central role in the transition to and transformation of green energy.The increased need for important minerals creates a significant opportunity for Africa, which is ideally positioned to become a major provider of these vital resources.But while global shift to a low-carbon future creates opportunities for African mineral-rich countries, it also underscores the criticality for these countries to ensure they have long-term strategies in place that allow them to create value addition and develop the value chain for industrialisation and economic development.The development of an end-to-end value chain could potentially stimulate GDP growth by facilitating industrial expansion, job creation, revenue generation, currency earnings from exports, and import savings.In addition, in anticipation of the surge in demand, nations will require appropriate regulatory frameworks to safeguard the environment and local communities.

Role of critical minerals and global energy transition in Africa's industrialisation and structural transformation
Due to limited technological and productive capabilities, which hinder the ability to further process their resources and capture higher value, African countries are, on average, predominantly specialised in the upstream phases of the value chains (UNCTAD 2023).Most African countries are thus active in the first phase of the value chain, which consists of producing and selling ore or concentrate, and often remain stagnant at this stage, benefiting only between 10% and 15% of the full value generated by developing an end-to-end commodity supply chain and realising thus a negligible portion of the potential value of their mineral resources (African Natural Resources Centre (ANRC) 2022).Because all mineral concentrate is exported, African countries are foregoing 88% of potential revenue, employment, taxes, secondary industry growth, and other benefits by exporting semi-processed goods (ANRC 2022).This is a critical issue that African countries must address if they are to achieve meaningful economic growth from their critical minerals.They must work towards the development of the entire value chain to maximise the benefit from their resources.The international race to net-zero may present an opportunity for African countries to establish end-to-end value chains in the critical mineral technologies industry to accelerate industrialisation and broad-based sustainable development.

Integration into higher value-added activities of global and regional value chains
The resource-intensive nature of low carbon transition technologies presents Africa with prospects to create local content and advance in medium-high technology value chains and increase manufacturing subsector productions that propels industrialisation and growth.
Critical minerals development, from the perspective of the GVC, entails a variety of upstream and downstream integrations that facilitate further movement along the value chain towards segments with the potential to capture and generate greater value.Moving from the first segment to the followings would allow African countries to capture gains beyond the very first and least profitable stage of the chain (see figure 5 and box 1).
Research and development operations, as well as the manufacture of equipment and technology, and the growth of infrastructure required for extraction activities, are examples of 'backward' or 'upstream' linkages.This area allows local suppliers to enter the value chain since their current contextual knowledge allows them to offer solutions that are tailored to local and regional requirements.Value can also be raised through connections of downstream.This is done mostly by mineral processing and refining at smelters and refineries, but also through recycling procedures.Because these activities consume a lot of energy, a higher portion of the profits can be made at the next step of the value chain, in product manufacture, i.e. the production of batteries or battery components (Muller 2023).
The 2022 agreement between Zambia and the DRC to jointly develop electric battery manufacturing capacity is an illustration of a regional value chain development that has the potential to strengthen Africa's position in the critical mineral value chain.The DRC-Zambia battery initiative (BEV) aims to develop (sub)regional synergies by focusing on specific segments of critical mineral value chains, leveraging the DRC's potential competitive advantage in battery precursors, a 271 billion US dollar market (BloombergNEF 2021).
In December 2022, the two countries signed an MoU with the United States (US) to secure technology and precursor offtake agreements.Thus, both countries can 'trade in tasks' at higher segments and participate in the BEV value chain's international division of labour.Investors can reduce risk by negotiating offtake agreements with foreign downstream companies.The DRC and Zambia signed another MoU in March 2023 with their partners, the UN Economic Commission for Africa and Afreximbank, to establish an operating company in consortium with public and private investors and the Fund for Export Development in Africa to move up the value chain.Prefeasibility studies have been done in both countries for the new company's SEZs to produce battery precursors, batteries, and EVs.

Diversification from a structural transformation perspective
The development of the critical minerals for Africa's economic growth and diversification can also be approached from a structural transformation perspective.This approach emphasises the development of intersectoral linkages for greater value retention and industrialisation within the African economies.
There are three distinct sets of linkages between the mineral and other sectors, including fiscal, consumption, and production, that can be used to enhance structural transformation in Africa (Hirschman 1981).
Fiscal linkages are resource rents obtained by governments from minerals in the form of corporate taxes, royalties, and employee income taxes, which can be used to promote the development of other industries.Consumption linkages are the demand for the output of other sectors resulting from income earned in the

Box 1. Value chain of the lithium-ion batteries (LIBs)
There are five value addition processes in the production of a LIB pack.Each of these phases is a business unit with its own commercialisation structures.Phase 1: Raw materials mining, which includes mining the numerous commodities minerals used in the production of the LIB, with a mineral concentrate as the commercial product.The average value realised at the mining and beneficiation phases by selling concentrate to the chemical or metallurgical sectors is projected to be $50, or 12% of the entire value of the value chain ($416).Phase 2: The processing stage in which the mineral concentrate obtained as raw material in stage 1 undergoes metallurgical processing to produce the products required for cell components (lithium carbonate or lithium hydroxide and cobalt compounds), realising $118, or $84 with recycling, or 25% of the total value.Phase 3: The production of electrodes for battery cell manufacturing using stage 3 products (Li & Co compounds), resulting in $28 (7% of total value).Phase 4: The production of battery cells using goods from stage 3, resulting in $146, or 35% of the total value, with a cumulative value of $342, or 82% of the whole value, assuming the first three stages were completed consecutively.mineral sector.Production linkages from the mining sector include both forward (processing minerals) and backward (producing inputs into the mineral sector) linkages.
In addition, it exists lateral linkages involving the stimulation of dynamic linkages with other sectors of the economy through the transfer of high-technology, knowledge-intensive products, and expertise out of the mining sector at various stages of the economy's diversification (figure 6).
Furthermore, linkages between the mining sector and other sectors in Africa will allow technology-based businesses in the related sectors to benefit from agglomeration economies and hire the necessary human capital for their operations.
There is a growing awareness among African policymakers about the importance of implementing strategies to improve and transform the value chains across sectors and integrate the GVCs of the critical mineral production.To support the development of the domestic mineral value chain, more than a dozen African countries-including the DRC, Nigeria, Zimbabwe, Namibia, and Ghana have implemented policies including export bans, local content policy, and foreign equity limitations (Cust and Zeufack 2023).To supporting local content development, Zimbabwe has implemented a law banning the exports of unprocessed lithium resources.Namibia has implemented a similar ban and, Ghana adopted the Green Minerals Policy, effectively banning the exportation of unprocessed mineral resources to retain value and bolster domestic supply chains.The DRC has used an intermittent export ban on cobalt and copper concentrates to force companies to process the minerals domestically.The last ban was lifted in 2019, but the government is reviewing the need for an export ban every six months and, if necessary, will impose it again (Cust and Zeufack 2023).
However, to be effective, these policies must be supported by a clear strategy and diverse ownership structures to avoid limiting foreign investment and export bottlenecks while draining significant investments in processing and manufacturing facilities.

Conditions pertaining to the improvement and transformation of the value chains across sectors in Africa and integration to the GVC of the critical mineral production
To effectively promote local content and value addition, countries must employ a multifaceted approach.
Local content policies should have four pillars: skill upgrading and jobs creation policies; procurement of local goods and services as well as local ownership/equity participation and management promotion; and participation of domestic financial institutions (ACET 2017).
Moving up to higher segments entails producing complex products which, of course, requires complex skills, which most of African countries lack.As a prerequisite for enhanced industrial productivity and competitiveness, these countries must thus restructure their education systems, with a special emphasis on technical and vocational training systems (Nkoy 2014).
Since certain skills are also specific to industrial activity, the acquisition of skills in the industrial transformation of ores is based on the ability of mineral rich economies, to convince technology owners on the different segments, to locally build factories.Good governance of mining and mineral processing is critical for attracting investors and ensuring that mining has a positive impact on communities.This is especially true in conflict-affected and high-risk countries.Thus, Africa must improve its attractiveness by developing domestic institutional comparative advantage (i.e.strong financial, judicial, and labour market institutions including contract enforcement, product market regulation, and labour market flexibility) (Chor 2010, Nunn andTler 2014).
By adopting such strategies, the continent will set itself up to capitalise on a share of the 14 million additional employment opportunities associated with renewable energy technologies development (IEA 2021a; ECA 2022).
In addition, restrictive measures on multinational profits and dividends repatriation should be implemented, while encouraging national participation through financial instruments such special purpose vehicles.Furthermore, the establishment of incentives for hiring local managers should be enhanced to ensure the development of local skills.Governments must indeed ensure that foreign investors use local personnel in decision-making at the supervisory, management, and executive levels, which will increase the impact and implementation of local content plans.Companies should be encouraged to support vocational training and apprenticeships to develop their skilled and semi-skilled personnel base locally.
Procurement of goods and services requirement are meant to assist local manufacturers and service providers by fostering vertical and horizontal linkages between the host economy and the investing companies.African countries should develop a spectrum of local procurements that provide opportunities for job creation in domestic manufacturing other than repair and maintenance of machinery and equipment, as well as opportunities for connections with the non-resource sector of the economy.
Developing national infrastructure and industries to process critical mineral locally necessitates specific financial support that can only be provided by local financial institutions.Strong financial institutions must be developed in Africa, particularly in the banking sector, which is currently primarily focused on retail (personal and commercial) and trade finance.Institutional investors such as pension funds, hedge and/or insurance funds, and wealth management funds that pool resources for large investments such as a mining operation can also play a key role (African Natural Resources Centre (ANRC) 2021).Considering the establishment of regional development banks to finance beneficiation projects would be a step in the right direction in the context of regional integration promoted by the Africa Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA).
The AfCFTA, implemented in 2021, can help African governments improve infrastructure, supply chains, manufacturing, cross-border trade, investment-friendly environment, and capital flow regulations.The reforms should boost African mineral trade.Thus, African nations are expected to be more proactive in critical mineral processing to maximise the continent's abundant mineral resources.The agreement can also help African countries develop energy transition-based technology core competencies through regional collaboration.For instance, the production of a one-gigawatt solar capacity necessitates an estimated investment of approximately $900 million.The main reason Africa is subordinate to the lower end of this value chain, which includes minimum capital expenditures for assembly or consumption, could be attributed to their incapacity to bear such investment.The integrated process is also energy-intensive due to chemical processes.In countries with high power costs, such an industry would be difficult to sustain.Taking advantage of the rule of origin along the PV value chain and product specifications that provide preferential treatment under the AfCFTA, African countries can build a regional solar PV value chain.Along the chain, each country can identify the specific areas in which it has a comparative advantage and exploit the subsequent opportunities.This value chain segment is ideal for Algeria, Sudan, Ethiopia, Angola, and Zambia, which have electricity costs under five cents per kilowatt-hour.Solar cell manufacturing uses aluminium for PV panels.Alumina is made from bauxite, which is abundant in Ghana, Guinea, and Mozambique.However, these countries' high electricity prices and the large investment and energy needed for this process may prevent their use.They may supply the resource to countries with low electricity costs, making them natural candidates for this value chain segment.By establishing an integrated renewable energy sector, fostering an investment-friendly environment for renewable energy industry, and facilitating intracontinental trade in solar PV technologies via the AfCFTA, Africa can ultimately capitalise on the economics of energy transition.

Leveraging the geopolitical dynamics surrounding Africa's critical minerals
In addition to focusing on regional value chain development, African countries should also prioritise the identification of strategic global alliances to promote domestic productive development.The recent geopolitical disruptions, driven by concerns about China's dominant position in the extraction and processing of essential minerals, have prompted leading economies to seek to diversify and strengthen their supply chains.These developments may have an impact on mineral supply chains in the medium-to long-term, opening a window of opportunity for the integration of critical minerals rich African economies into global supply chain thereby transforming their extractive sectors in a way that unleashes economic potential, creates local content in the mining sector, and promotes sustainable development.
The growing attention from key stakeholders regarding Africa's critical mineral supply is apparent in recent policy declarations from the European Union (EU) and the United States (US).Both the EU and the US have underscored the importance of developing strategic partnerships with countries capable of supplying responsibly sourced critical minerals and mitigating risks in the commodity supply chain (Müller 2023).
The US has recently enacted significant legislation and ancillary policy documents that have defined this priority into specific objectives: the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022, the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, and the Creating Helpful Incentives to Produce Semiconductors and Science Act of 2022 (CHIPS and Science Act).Simultaneously, the US is currently in the process of reassessing its association with Africa, as exemplified primarily by the pledges made at the December 2022 US-Africa Leaders' Summit and the recently unveiled strategy document centred on the continent.The primary objective of these commitments is to promote reciprocal trade and investment, while also striving to fundamentally alter the historical aid donor-recipient dynamic in the United States-Africa relationship (Usman and Csanadi 2023).The US Department of Defence is also actively pursued agreements with African countries such as Malawi and Burundi to directly secure future rare earth supplies directly from the continent.
The EU has acknowledged the strategic significance of ensuring a reliable and steady supply of essential minerals and seeking to form new strategic alliances with Africa.The European Commission proposed its Critical Raw Materials Act in March 2023 to secure the EU's access to minerals and metals needed for net-zero technologies by strengthening international engagement and easing extraction, processing, and recycling.To 'level the playing field' with domestically produced products that must pay the EU Emissions trading system charge, the recently agreed Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism regulation will charge importers of key products from carbon intensive industries like steel, iron, cement, and fertilisers based on their embedded greenhouse gases.The EU also announced it was negotiating to source critical minerals from the DRC, Rwanda, Gambia, and Zambia (Müller 2023).
A strategic approach does not require African countries to join any geopolitical rivalry.However, collaboration with other partners can unlock investment for industrial initiatives and improve transport and energy infrastructure.To increase their global influence, African countries must however present an African strategy and agenda.In this competitive environment, it also obvious that African countries must build and maintain strong sovereignty over national critical mineral resources.African governments should develop human and institutional infrastructure to establish local technological capabilities for exploring, processing, and exploiting natural resources.This will allow them to exercise sovereignty over their resources.

Sustainable development of critical mineral in Africa: limiting the environmental and social impacts of critical mineral exploitation
The relationship between critical minerals and the environment is multifaceted.The transition to renewable energy to alleviate the burden on the environment and climate necessitates the extraction of critical minerals, which may result in environmental degradation.
A higher mineral extraction in Africa resulting from an increasing demand for energy transition minerals may induce significant environmental impacts, stemming from changes in land use, waste generation and air and water pollution.In fact, energy transition minerals development is associated with higher GHG emissions (see figure 7).Furthermore, as demand for energy transition minerals increases, new resources and processing routes with higher GHG emissions intensities will become more prevalent.Nevertheless, the emissions produced throughout the mineral supply chain do not cancel out the evident climate benefits of clean energy technologies.For instance, the overall GHG emissions throughout the entire lifespan of EVs are approximately 50% less than those of cars powered by internal combustion engines.Moreover, there is the possibility of achieving an additional 25% reduction in emissions by using low-carbon electricity (IEA 2021b).Furthermore, there are strategies to reduce the critical minerals emissions, which include switching to cleaner fuels, using low-carbon electricity, and implementing measures to enhance efficiency.Integrating environmental factors into the early stages of project planning ensures the consistent adoption of sustainable practices throughout the entire project duration.(IEA 2021b).
Critical mineral extraction and processing necessitate substantial land and resource consumption which may result in land degradation, deforestation, and land rights disputes with local communities.As population growth continues, competition between mining and other human land uses is expected to intensify (Oakleaf et al 2015).Additionally, agricultural and mining operations tend to gradually expand, often into forested areas, which poses a threat to the environment and the livelihoods of those who rely on natural resources (Bebbington et al 2018).
The extraction of critical minerals can also result in the production of substantial quantities of waste and tailings, which may be contaminated with hazardous chemicals and pose a threat to ecosystems and water sources.Critical mineral processing may lead to the production of hazardous waste and pollutants.Therefore, it is crucial to evaluate and mitigate the effects on biodiversity, including endangered species and protected areas, particularly when extraction of critical minerals is happening in regions of high biodiversity value such as the Congo Basin (Lèbre et al 2020).According to life-cycle assessment (LCA), the mineral processing stage has a much greater environmental impact (in terms of GHG emissions) than mining and transportation of high-grade resources (Jiang et al 2020).This is largely due to the amount of energy required for the process and the extensive use of chemicals.Additional local environmental impacts in the vicinity of processing plants and mines are anticipated to generate concern.Recent LCA showed that REEs mining continues to be associated with substantial quantities of chemicals needed for processing and large amounts of tailings containing toxic radionuclides (Zapp et al 2022).The negative environmental consequences are further exacerbated by inadequate reclamation practises, ineffective waste management, and the potential for dam failures.
Critical mineral extraction and processing also necessitate substantial water resources and can result in water scarcity, water quality degradation, and competition with other industries, such as agriculture, for water resources.At least 16% of land-based critical mineral mines, deposits, and districts are in water-stressed areas (WRI 2024).Inadequate management of mine water, which results in elevated rates of withdrawal, diminished rates of reuse, and the release of contaminated water, can have detrimental effects on nearby ecosystems, communities, and local water resources.
There is thus a potential trade-off between environment degradation that African countries must manage and limit in developing their critical minerals.
First of all, proper waste management practices, including the safe disposal of waste and the use of advanced treatment technologies, are necessary to prevent pollution and protect the environment and human health.Secondly, implementing sustainable water management practices and optimal regulatory framework are essential for mitigating the effects of critical mining and processing on water.
Furthermore, expanding the collection and recycling rates of metals once products containing them become obsolete is crucial to disrupt the vicious cycle between the shift towards renewable energy and the deterioration of the environment.
Circularity and recycling rates can be increased on a national level through the implementation of Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) standards.ESG standards effectively regulate unethical practises and promote competitive mineral extraction and production.ESG standards serve as a significant constraint on irresponsible practises and facilitate more competitive mineral extraction and production.
Mining of critical mineral has also potential social impacts including livelihood, displacement and or migration, health impacts which can lead to social tension and violent conflicts.
One of the most serious consequences of mining today is the eviction of thousands of people from their homes.Mining-induced displacement is now a major social issue and a human rights challenge.Entire communities may be uprooted and forced to relocate, often to purpose-built settlements with insufficient resources or are abandoned near mines, where they may face pollution and contamination.Communities may lose not only their homes, but also their land, and thus their livelihoods.Community institutions and power dynamics may be jeopardised as well.Every year, at least one million people worldwide are affected by this problem (Terminski 2012).
Another significant impact of mining activity is the migration of people into mine areas, particularly in remote areas of developing countries where the mine is the single most important economic activity, causing pressures on land, water, and other resources as well as sanitation and waste disposal issues.Migration effects may extend far beyond the surrounding area of mine.
Mining-related hazardous substances and wastes in water, air, and soil can have serious, negative effects on public health.Hazardous substances may cause or contribute to an increase in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible or incapacitating illness (i.e.increased incidence of tuberculosis, asthma, chronic bronchitis, and gastrointestinal diseases) depending on their quantity, concentration, or physical, chemical, or infectious characteristics.It can also pose a significant present or potential hazard to human health when improperly treated, stored, transported, disposed of, or otherwise managed.
For instance, DRC cobalt mining in the region of Katanga was found very environmentally damaging.The extraction dust damaged nearby plants and soil.Food was grown in contaminated soil, water was polluted by mining waste, and residents had cancer, ulcers, and other gastric issues.Children in the Kasulo mining district had ten times more cobalt in their urine than others (Nkulu et al 2018).
Government should thus ensure that the basic rights of affected individuals and communities are protected and not violated in the mining projects.These include the right to control and use land, the right to safe drinking water, and the right to a living wage.Such rights may be enshrined in national law, as well as based on and expressed in a variety of international human rights instruments and agreements.
The respect of all these norms requires sustainable development approaches and new metrics that measure success based on an adherence to the highest standards of governance and transparency, respect for social values and aspirations, sound environmental management, and economic outcomes (Pedro 2021).New frameworks may include the 'Sustainable Development Licence to Operate' (SDLO), an extension of the Social Licence to Operate which is more stringent and go far beyond corporate social responsibility minimum standards.Instead of regulating or requiring mining licences, the SLDO aims to increase these benefits.It explores how the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and targets address all environmental, social, and economic issues.Public, private, and civil society extractive industry stakeholders are affected (IRP 2020, Pedro 2021).

Conclusion
Africa is rich in low-carbon transition minerals including bauxite, chromium, cobalt, copper, gold, iron, lithium, manganese, platinum, and uranium.A shift to a low-carbon future will increase the demand for these minerals critical for the development of clean energy technologies such as solar panels, wind turbines, and electric car batteries.By harnessing these minerals effectively, Africa can thus drive both its own and the global transition, while also promoting industrialisation, economic growth, job creation, and environmental sustainability.
This requires that critical mineral rich African countries establish long-term strategies, which include effective policies and strong institutions, in order to take advantage of cross-sector opportunities and promote sustainable development.Effective governance serves as an enabler for sustainable mining of critical minerals.It involves establishing good contracts that comply to high environmental safeguard requirements, enabling collective bargaining, developing regional guidelines, and providing access to technology to ensure responsible and inclusive mineral extraction.
Furthermore, investing in areas that drive sustainable development and human capital is vital to achieving inclusive wealth through critical minerals.African countries can maximise the advantages of critical minerals for their populations and encourage long-term sustainable development by strategically investing in education, skills development, healthcare, and infrastructure.
Low-carbon transition minerals can facilitate resource-based industrialisation in Africa.By incorporating these minerals into manufacturing processes and developing forward and backward linkages, the continent can stimulate economic diversification, create employment opportunities, and foster sustainable development.Nevertheless, the distribution of critical mineral resources is unevenly and geographically concentrated.These minerals are only found in a few countries on the continent.As a result, the development of these critical minerals presents opportunities for trade.Trade and industrial cooperation in the context of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), provide a continental-wide approach to addressing the demand for critical minerals in the context of low-carbon transition, building on a strategic focus on EVs and clean electrification.
Intra-African trade and strategic partnerships can assist in the manufacturing of renewable energy equipment, the expansion of electricity transmission and distribution networks, the production of batteries for energy storage and EVs, the capacity development for midstream and downstream value-added interventions, and industrial development.However, the energy supply in Africa constitutes a real obstacle for the development of transformative industries that add value and create jobs, which are by nature energy intensive.To fully leverage the AfCFTA, it is critical to invest in high-quality infrastructure, to connect mineral-rich countries via transportation corridors.Contracts transparency, strong labour rights, and environmental sustainability will be critical to capitalising on the opportunity provided by improving the continent's critical minerals value chain, which is poised to result in value addition, job creation, local content development, knowledge and technology transfer, and the development of long-term industrialisation prospects, economic diversification, and transformative sustainable growth.
Similarly, cross-country industrial cooperation on tangible and eco-friendly investment plans that clearly elucidate social, economic, financial, and policy enablers and opportunities for profitable investments in Africa's critical minerals sub-sectors of EVs, clean electricity, and their various application areas is critical.A notable example is the DRC-Zambia efforts to establish a unique cross-border economic zone for batteries and EVs.This special economic zone aspires to be a regional industrial cluster, similar to European development poles, where across the border partnerships are established between the different governments (municipalities, departments, provinces) to attract investors.
Furthermore, strategic environmental policy interventions for critical minerals in the green transition is of prime importance.This includes assessing the environmental impacts of critical resource extraction, particularly in fragile environments, while also ensuring that the global shift to clean technology does not come at the expense of Africans, particularly indigenous peoples as critical minerals are increasingly being discovered on their territory, who bear the brunt of corruption, conflicts, pollution, and biodiversity losses.Policies that prioritise environmental standards, traceability, and due diligence, in particular, are crucial to reducing the risk of environmental deterioration following mining activities.ESG standards and investments and SDLO can provide a framework of principles, policy options, and good practices to address environmental risks and improve the extractive sector's contribution to achieving the SDGs and improve the net societal benefits of mining.
Therefore, to capitalise on its wealth in clean transition minerals, Africa should act now to convert its natural assets into sustainable comparative advantages.The current timeframe for African countries to capitalise on their resources is relatively short, as the minerals-based energy system has a 30 year lifespan, with some minor component replacement.Once the system is built, the amount of metal required to sustain it will gradually decrease, in contrast to a fossil-based system that necessitates a constant supply of fossil fuels.In addition, after a decade of stable or rising prices, several critical minerals and metals prices have recently experienced sharp declines (i.e. of aluminium, cobalt, copper, lithium, manganese, nickel, and platinum).
Therefore, African nations must take immediate actions to capitalise on their critical mineral resources before they become stranded.

Figure 4 .
Figure 4. Africa's main reserves and production of key green transition minerals.Source: African Centre for Statistics (ACS) of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, based on data from UNCTAD, (2022); Reserve data from Chandler (2022); and USGS (2023).

Phase 5 :
Assembling the cells from phase 4 into a battery pack with a $74 value realisation, equivalent to 18% of the overall value or 22% with recycling.Source: African Natural Resources Centre (ANRC) 2021.Lithium-Cobalt Value Chain Analysis for Mineral Based Industrialization in Africa.African Development Bank.Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire.

Figure 6 .
Figure 6.Diversification from a structural transformation perspective.Reproduced with permission from Andreoni and Avenyo (2023).Critical Minerals and Routes to Diversification in Africa: Linkages, Pulling Dynamics and Opportunities in Medium-High Tech Supply Chains.Background paper commissioned by the UNCTAD secretariat for the 2023 edition of the Economic Development in Africa Report.UNCTAD: United Nations.©2023.United Nations.Reprinted with the permission of the United Nations.

Figure 7 .
Figure7.Average GHG emissions for certain commodities.Notes: includes both Scope 1 and 2 emissions of all GHGs (the majority of which are CO2) from primary production.The values for lithium carbonate refer only to CO2 emissions based on the weight average of brine and hard-rock production (denoted on a lithium carbonate-equivalent basis).Source: Reproduced from IEA (2021b).CC BY 4.0.

Table 1 .
Relative importance for selected critical mineral for a particular clean technology.Reproduced from IEA (2021b).CC BY 4.0.