Estimating domestic water usage in a tropical environment: exploring socio-demographic perspectives

Water demand at any given time, particularly at the household level, depends on various factors, including climatic variables, social, economic, and demographic factors. Achieving consistent availability and accessibility, coupled with effective resource management, is crucial, particularly in tropical regions. Understanding all these variables is essential to achieving these goals. This research aimed to assess the impact of ten socio-demographic variables on predicting household water demand in Iwo. Two hundred and twenty-five households were randomly selected, with 196 completing and returning the survey. Both descriptive and multivariate analyses, specifically Factor and Regression Analysis, were employed to analyse the data. Factor analysis (FA) identified four variables: (i) housing characteristics; (ii) marital status; (iii) income level; and (iv) gender distribution, in that sequence. These four variables collectively accounted for 68.608% of the variance in household water demand in Iwo. This outcome underscores the importance of giving due consideration to these variables in water supply planning by relevant authorities. The study contributes to a better understanding and quantification of the significant variables influencing household water demand. However, it is advisable that future investigations into household water use incorporate additional variables beyond socio-demographic factors to comprehensively comprehend factors influencing water demand at the household level.


Introduction
An all-encompassing understanding of the diverse factors influencing water resource management at various spatial and temporal levels is a prerequisite for achieving SDG Target 6 (Akuoko-Asibey et al 1993, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 2016, Gumez et al 2019, Ogunbode et al 2023).According to the UNDP (2016), SDG 6 emphasizes the importance of water-related ecosystems, stressing the need to protect and restore rivers, lakes, and wetlands.It advocates for integrated water resources management to address the growing challenges of water scarcity, pollution, and inadequate sanitation infrastructure.Additionally, SDG 6 promotes community participation and capacity-building to ensure sustainable water practices at local levels.The goal recognizes the significance of cross-sectoral cooperation and international partnerships for effective global water resource management, acknowledging that achieving water and sanitation targets is fundamental for advancing interconnected Sustainable Development Goals, such as health, education, and environmental sustainability.
Numerous efforts in this regard aim to ensure the availability of water for various household uses.The significance of water for households cannot be overstated in sustaining human livelihoods, being essential for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing, laundry, lawn watering, among others (Ogunbode and Ifasbiyi 2014, Victor et al 2019, Manga et al 2022).Unfortunately, this finite resource faces threats from human-induced environmental challenges and emerging global uses, such as combating the spread of the COVID-19 virus (Ogunbode et al 2020).To underscore this, the utilization of water by humans in space and time is subject to various parameters that are not static temporally and spatially (Bradley et al 2009, Shan et al 2015, Bergel et al 2016, Crouch et al 2021).For instance, it is crucial to acknowledge that residential water consumption is dynamic, subject to the sway of socio-demographic, economic, and natural/environmental factors.Numerous variables shape water use patterns within households, such as household income, family size, and gender composition, as highlighted in studies by Jain et al (2014), Yu et al (2015), Ramsey et al (2017), andMotho et al (2022).These socio-demographic considerations emphasize the intricate interplay of diverse elements influencing water utilization at the domestic level (Shan et al 2015).Understanding and addressing these multifaceted influences is essential for devising effective water management strategies that cater to the evolving dynamics of households and their varying needs.As communities grow and change, policymakers and researchers must consider these factors to implement sustainable and equitable water practices, ensuring that water resources are utilized judiciously and responsibly.
Also, the significance of climate and weather variables has been observed to have a significant impact on daily water use in tropical homes (Some researchers have mentioned that more water is used for varying domestic purposes during the daytime, attributed to the high diurnal temperature and usually single-digit daily temperature range in tropical environments ( Slavikova et al 2013, Paramita and Rini, 2019, Bergel and Młyńska 2021).Further supporting this viewpoint, Bergel and Młyńska (2021) and Dimkić (2020) revealed that more water is utilized for drinking when the weather is hot than when it is cold.Beyond this, studies have highlighted the influence of household characteristics on daily domestic water use (Ogunbode and Ifabiyi 2014, Ogunbode et al 2023).For instance, Martinez-Santos (2017) submitted from his investigation in southern Mali that water demand on a daily basis is greatly influenced by diverse variables such as household size, status of water accessibility, seasonal variation, and the economic power of the household head, among others.According to Ogunbode andIfabiyi (2014, 2017) and Ogunbode et al (2023), household characteristics offered significant explanations for household daily water use in Iwo, Nigeria.
Onwuemele.In order to ensure efficient utilization of water, unhindered accessibility is being pursued by the United Nations through its Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) number 6.It is desirable that a study like this be conducted, as such efforts enhance the understanding of the dynamics of daily water use in homes, facilitating efficient water supply management on Earth.The supply of potable water is particularly influenced by various factors, and knowledge of these explanatory variables will assist in practices that ensure its sound management.Moreover, the volume of freshwater available for human use is a mere 0.003% of the total freshwater on the planet (Water Science School 1993), distributed spatially.While equatorial and humid tropical regions are wellendowed with vast water resources, arid and semi-arid areas are grossly deficient in the resource (Ogunbode et al 2022).The novel coronavirus, causing COVID-19, has added pressure to water usage, with regular handwashing and cleaning of surfaces recommended as preventive measures against the continuous spread of the disease.
Furthermore, the unabated rise in the global human population has intensified the pressure on the finite water resource, especially in developing nations.The quest for increasing food production at national and international levels to ensure food security for the teeming population is another source of pressure on the available water resource.According to Mafuta (2019), water use efficiency in irrigation farming is as low as 30%, implying that the farming system consumes an enormous volume of water, putting heavy pressure on the finite resource.Additionally, the implication of rising population on urban expansion and the eventual rising need for water infrastructure expansion (Falkenmark 1990, Postel 2000, Yongbo and Yanig 2006, Boretti and Rosa 2019, Rondinel-Oviedo and Sarmiento-Pastor 2020).Many countryside areas in most developing countries are currently becoming conurbations due to increasing expansion, while pre-existing cities and metropolises continue to swallow up many communities.Such expansion has significant tendencies to exacerbate pressure on pre-existing infrastructures, including water supply.The push for infrastructural and industrial development and growth in developing nations will spell increasing demand for water resources (Pandurangarao 2015, Akinola et al 2018).
In view of these challenges facing water supply at different levels, efficient and sustainable utilization of this resource is of utmost significance.Such efforts will be enhanced through an increase in the frontiers of knowledge on the dynamics of daily domestic water use at the household level.With such knowledge, water supply and use could be regulated sustainably at different scales.These regulations could be carried out through water pricing, institution for licensing/authorizing exploitation of the resource, water metering, and sound management of the resource by relevant authorities, especially through integrated water resource management, often at the basing level.It is on this premise that this research is intended to evaluate the influential strengths of household socioeconomic attributes on daily household water demand in a tropical environment.The aim of this study will be pursued through the following objectives: (i) quantification of various domestic uses of water on a daily basis in the study area, (ii) identification and ranking of household socio-economic attributes impacting on domestic water demand by their respective explanatory strengths.The realizations of these objectives are expected to enhance understanding of domestic water patterns for better relevant policy formulation.

Study area
The study area, Iwo (figure 1), situated at latitude 7°38'N and longitude 4°o1'E, stands as one of the ancient towns in the southwestern zone of Nigeria, covering a land area of 245 square kilometres.It serves as the seat of Iwo Local Government headquarters in Osun State, located in the northeastern part of the Ibadan metropolis, forming the interchange between Ibadan and Osogbo, the capital of Osun State (Statista 2019).According to the 2006 headcount record in Nigeria, the town has a total of 191, 348 inhabitants, predominantly from the Yoruba tribe, mainly practicing the Muslim and Christian faiths.According to Iwo enjoys a tropical climate with two distinct seasons, receiving about 1000 mm of rainfall annually and maintaining an average daily temperature of 31 °C.The wet season typically commences in March and ends in October, while the dry season sets in November and terminates at the end of February each year.The characteristics of the population in Iwo have been significantly influenced by the location of Bowen University, owned by the Nigerian Baptist Convention, which is still undergoing expansion.People from diverse areas globally continue to flock to the city as students, researchers, hoteliers, staff of various categories, businessmen, and women, among others.Additionally, the recent initiation of activities in the newly established Federal College of Education in the town and the continuous growth of the popularly known Odo-Ori Market, among other institutions, are all expected to impact the socio-demographic attributes of the inhabitants.The major occupations of the residents include farming, trading, and operating slaughter slabs.The town is blessed with both surface and groundwater resources.Major rivers include Aiba River, dammed to provide quality water for the inhabitants and the suburbs, and Oba River.Due to the poor performance of Aiba Water Works (AWW), the exploitation of groundwater sources has become expedient to ensure timely and spatial access to potable water for home use (Akinola et al 2018).

Data collection
A structured questionnaire, covering relevant areas of focus, was meticulously prepared and administered among 225 respondents.The sample frame comprised households in the study area, from which each sampled respondent was randomly selected.The questionnaire was specifically completed by the female gender in each surveyed household.This choice was based on reports indicating that women are traditionally responsible for water provision in many African homes (Ogunbode et al 2022).The researchers believed that female heads of households would possess detailed information regarding water resource provision and usage in their respective homes.However, in cases where the female head was unavailable or indisposed, the male head was involved.In all instances, strict consent was obtained from each participant before their involvement in the questionnaire survey.Participants were made aware of the purpose and intent of the investigation in language understood by each individual.The questionnaire was administered in April and May 2023, during the early morning and late evening when respondents were likely to be at home or have returned from their daily activities.The questionnaire consisted of two sections: a personal data section and a section dealing with socio-demographic influences on household water demand.The socio-demographic attributes considered in the questionnaire included income level, household size, age composition, gender composition, marital status, level of education, number of females, housing features, religious affiliation, and household assets.Additionally, the questionnaire included structured questions gathering information on household water usage in the study area.However, due to funding and time constraints, the questionnaire could undergo pilot testing to validate its adequacy.

Data analysis
The analysis of the generated data employed both descriptive and inferential statistical methods.Descriptive analysis included tabulation and percentages, while inferential statistics involved factor and regression analysis.Factor analysis (FA) was utilized to identify variables that significantly explained the variance in household water demand, by ranking.The eigenvalue, serving as the ranking factor in factor analysis, was set at a maximum of one (1.000), with a significance level of p < 0.005.Any variable with an eigen factor less than 1 was considered insignificant in explaining the observed variance in household water demand.Extracted variables with the highest impact were identified from each component highlighted in the Rotated Component Matrix (RCM) table.FA was recognized as a powerful and adequate tool for identifying significant variables among complex arrays of variables (Stewart 1981, Tavakol andWetzel 2020).

Results and discussion
Characteristics of the respondents Table 1 shows the basic characteristics of the respondents involved in the survey.The comprehensive analysis of the data indicated that a substantial 69.90% of the respondents had attained post-primary education, showcasing a commendable educational background.Furthermore, a noteworthy 82.14% of the participants fell within the age bracket of 19 to 45 years, reflecting a diverse yet predominantly youthful demographic.Family size information revealed that 77.55% of the surveyed households had not more than five members, highlighting the prevalence of relatively smaller family units.Moreover, a significant 78.57% of the respondents were identified as females, reinforcing the focus on female participants due to their perceived role as primary informants on household water use, a role traditionally acknowledged in African homes according to Ogunbode et al (2022).Despite the emphasis on female participation, the study recognized the inclusion of 21.43% male respondents, demonstrating flexibility in cases where the female head was unavailable or indisposed.This approach ensured a more inclusive representation across genders.Furthermore, conscious efforts were made to engage literate individuals who possessed the ability to read, comprehend, and effectively respond to the questionnaire.The proportion of respondents with a post-primary or higher level of education was prioritized in this regard.For those falling within the category of primary school education, additional support was provided to facilitate their completion of the questionnaire, fostering inclusivity in the data collection process.

Household water uses in Iwo
Descriptive analysis of the data showed that household water uses in the study area was exclusively domestic.The breakdown of the data is presented in table 2.
Table 2 showed that apart from the general uses of water for drinking, cooking, bathing and washing purposes, other uses were not absolute.This situation may imply the economic status of the respondents.For instance, 64.29% claimed using water for sanitation purposes which comprises of toilet cleaning and drainage cleaning, an indication of poor sanitation in the study area.In the same vein, the respective proportion of the respondents that uses water for car washing (47.45%), green space watering (10.71%) and wall/rail cleaning (6.63%) could also express the quality of the respondents' residences.The results, which portrayed the study area is an agrarian economy, corroborated the findings of Onwuemele and Ekuase (2011), Egbe (2014) and, Ogunbode and Ifabiyi (2017), thus indicating an agrarian economy.

Socio-demographic predictors of household water demand
The comprehensive analysis of the data indicated that a substantial 69.90% of the respondents had attained postprimary education, showcasing a commendable educational background.Furthermore, a noteworthy 82.14% of the participants fell within the age bracket of 19 to 45 years, reflecting a diverse yet predominantly youthful demographic.Family size information revealed that 77.55% of the surveyed households had not more than five members, highlighting the prevalence of relatively smaller family units.Moreover, a significant 78.57% of the respondents were identified as females, reinforcing the focus on female participants due to their perceived role as primary informants on household water use, a role traditionally acknowledged in African homes according to Ogunbode et al (2022).Despite the emphasis on female participation, the study recognized the inclusion of 21.43% male respondents, demonstrating flexibility in cases where the female head was unavailable or indisposed.This approach ensured a more inclusive representation across genders.Furthermore, conscious efforts were made to engage literate individuals who possessed the ability to read, comprehend, and effectively respond to the questionnaire.The proportion of respondents with a post-primary or higher level of education was prioritized in this regard.For those falling within the category of primary school education, additional support was provided to facilitate their completion of the questionnaire, fostering inclusivity in the data collection process.Wall/Rail cleaning 13 6.63 Table 3 discloses that housing characteristics provide the most significant explanation for the observed variance in household water use within the study area.It secures the top position among the 10 analysed variables, boasting a rotated component matrix score of 80.2.This variable emerges as the leader among the four extracted, possessing an eigenvalue of 1.963 and elucidating 19.627% of the variance noted in household water use.Housing quality, encompassing factors such as structure, location, fencing, and other quality features, is a crucial determinant in this study.This finding aligns with the results of Oyerinde and Jacobs (2022), who supported the correlation between house quality and water consumption in their study area.Notably, fenced buildings with green surfaces were identified as consuming more water than their counterparts lacking green spaces.The second-ranking factor pertains to the marital status of the respondents, featuring an eigenvalue of 1.910 and an RCM of 74.4.It contributes to a variance of 19.099%, adding to the overall explanation of 68.608% given by the four extracted variables.Ozyazgan et al (2020) demonstrated that the marital status of an individual influences the volume of water used, especially in comparison to single status.This emphasizes the importance of considering both married and single populations in water supply planning.Another crucial variable among the extracted factors is the income level of the respondents, securing the third position with an eigenvalue of 1.814 and a total explanation of 18.137%.The influence of income level on household water demand cannot be overstated, as highlighted by Ogunbode and Ifabiyi (2014) and Fagbohun and Ajetomobi (2018).Income level shapes the possession of various household assets, including washing machines, motor vehicles, and the use of showers, all of which contribute to water consumption (Akuoko-Asibey et al 1993, Ogunbode and Ifabiyi 2014, Pandurangarao 2015, Manga et al 2021).The final variable extracted through factor analysis is household gender distribution, ranking fourth with an RCM of 94.4 and an eigenvalue of 1.175.Gender distribution contributes to 11.745% of the total observed variance in water demand at the household level.This aligns with the observations of Ogunbode and Ifabiyi (2014) and Manga et al (2021), asserting that homes with a larger number of females have the potential to consume more water than male-dominated homes.The rationale behind this observation is that the female gender uses water for various purposes such as sanitation, hair washing, and laundry, which may not be as crucial to the male gender.

Conclusion and recommendation
This work considered the power of ten (10) socio-demographic variables in predicting domestic water demand in Iwo, Osun State, Nigeria.Descriptive analysis showed that 78.57% of the total respondents were females whose age range was between 19 and 45 years old.Of the entire respondents, 69.90% had post-primary education.while 77.55% had household size of not more than 5.The results of FA showed that 4 variables namely, (i) housing characteristics, (ii) marital status; (iii) income level; and (iv) gender distribution were significant influencers (p 0.005) with a total explanation of 68.608% of the variance in household water demand in the study area.This outcome underscores the importance of giving due consideration to these variables in water supply planning by relevant authorities.The study contributes to a better understanding and quantification of the significant variables influencing household water demand in the tropical environment.However, it is suggested that future investigations into household water use incorporate additional variables beyond socio-demographic factors to comprehensively realise factors influencing water demand at the household level.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Map of Osun State showing the location of Iwo (Inset: Map of Nigeria showing the location of Osun State).

Table 1 .
Basic attributes of the respondents.

Table 2 .
Household water uses by their respective proportions.