The utilization and contribution of timber and non-timber forest products to livelihoods under a changing climate in the Limpopo River Basin

Forest products contribute immensely to rural livelihoods and household income. However, their contribution to climate change adaptation in semi-arid areas, and the limited ecosystem management capacities of rural communities are poorly examined. We examined the influence and challenges of cash income derived from forest products on livelihoods and climate change adaptation using data from 130 household surveys, 20 participatory mapping exercises, several in-depth interviews, and field observations in the Limpopo Basin of Botswana. Households derived livelihoods and/or income from Mopane caterpillars, firewood, timber, palm plants, wild fruits, thatch, medicinal plants, natural dyes, natural pastures, and game meat. Mopane caterpillars, firewood, and other forest products featured in the top ten sources of household income and contributed weighted monthly income of BWP 1,647.27 ± 1,519.04, BWP 1,110.02 ± 1,980.05, and BWP 780.56 ± 1,360.32, respectively (US$1 ≈ BWP13.4). A higher proportion of households (62.3%) were in the low-income category, earning income below BWP5,000/month. Income derived from Mopane caterpillars and firewood made a significant difference between low-income and high-income households (p = 0.006). Generally, higher proportions of high-income households adopted climate change adaptation measures than proportions in the low-income category, indicating the influence of cash income on household adaptations. However, significant differences were only observed in cropland expansion, purchasing of supplementary livestock feed, drilling boreholes/wells, and use of drip irrigation (p < 0.05). We discuss the potential threats, such as the unsustainable harvesting of forest products, caused by an increasing need for cash incomes and the interconnectedness with distant urban markets. Such threats add to the institutional and biophysical challenges, further limiting prospects for effective adaptation in the Limpopo Basin of Botswana. We call on the government to capacitate and strengthen traditional authorities—as custodians of local resources—in the regulation, management, and conservation of forest products to make them more sustainable adaptation options.


Introduction
Globally, forest products are recognized as vital contributors to livelihoods and human well-being, especially in rural areas of developing countries [1][2][3].However, the role of these forest products in climate change adaptation is a subject that varies significantly depending on the context and has, in many regions, not been thoroughly examined [4].The complex interplay between human dependence on nature and its multiple variations, influenced by landscapes, cultures, human perceptions, socio-economic status, institutional arrangements and other biophysical factors such as climate, underscores the dynamic nature of this relationship [1,5].For instance, the dependence on tangible forest products for daily sustenance is often more pronounced among the poor and marginalized communities, while affluent individuals may derive intangible benefits such as aesthetic value, recreation, and meditation from these green landscapes [5].
Timber and non-timber forest products (T&NTFPs) provide diverse benefits that offer a wide array of benefits across various domains.They cater to essential human needs, such as sustenance (food, fruits, resins, insects, caterpillars, wild animals, alcoholic juices, etc), construction materials (poles, thatch, etc), natural medicines (barks, sap, leaves, roots, seeds etc), raw material for craftwork (timber, palm fronds) and even decoration (sap, bark, seeds etc) [1,2,4,5].While these consumptive uses of forest products are prevalent in developing countries, especially in rural areas, non-consumptive uses like recreation, are common in developed countries and urban settings [5].
For many rural communities in developing countries, the utilization of surrounding forest products extends beyond daily sustenance; it provides an opportunity for income generation by selling these resources in urban markets, often located far from their sources [2,4].For instance, in Kano Nigeria, Suleiman et al showed that income from forest products (i.e.fuelwood, honey, gum arabic, medicinal herbs, fruit nuts, and fodder) constituted a substantial 30% of the total household incomes.In the Limpopo Basin, the trade in Mopane caterpillars (Imbrasia belina) stands out as the primary source of income among all the forest products obtained in the basin, even attracting buyers from beyond the borders of Botswana [6].Several other studies have shown the close relationship between forest products and local communities and that people living in proximity to forests often use at least one forest product and possess intimate knowledge of these natural products [1,[3][4][5].
Previous studies have argued that the valuation of local ecosystem products consumed and/or traded by households in rural areas is critical to understanding their monetary contribution to local livelihoods and overall well-being [5].Recognizing these contributions is essential not only for policy formulation but also for informed decision-making [5,7].However, it is imperative to acknowledge that the significance of local forest products extends beyond monetary valuation, to promoting climate change adaptation.For instance, their contribution becomes strikingly evident during episodes of extreme events such as heatwaves and droughts, when conventional agricultural production often fails [4].In these instances, the reliance on ecosystem products for sustenance and resilience comes to the forefront.
Besides, some studies have demonstrated that the monetization and commercialization of forest products often led to their unsustainable exploitation, leading to ecosystem degradation [6,8].This dual challenge poses a substantial threat, not only to local livelihoods in the short term but also to the feasibility of long-term adaptation efforts.A compelling illustration comes from a study by [9], which reported an increasing frequency and intensity of droughts in the Limpopo Basin in recent years, further limiting rainfed crop production.Several other studies have corroborated this trend, indicating a heightened dependence on forest products as a coping mechanism during drought years compared to other years [4,10,11].
In rural areas, the harvesting of forest products serves a dual purpose, catering to immediate consumption and income generation [2,3].Within this duality, valuable opportunities for climate change adaptation emerge.Consider the practice of processing and preserving edible foods for future consumption; this not only ensures future consumption during times of need but also adds value and opens avenues for exploiting more lucrative markets beyond local communities.For instance, the sale of Mopane caterpillars (Imbrasia belina) out-of-season has demonstrated its capacity to secure better prices and provide a stable income stream throughout the year [6,8,12].The presence of edible forest products like wild fruits, resins and alcoholic juices (derived from sources like Hyphaene petersiana and Scelerocarya birrea) across different seasons broadens opportunities for year-round income generation [5,8].Such cash inflows, in turn, can be strategically invested in other resilient incomegenerating activities such as local chicken breeds and small livestock.This diversified income portfolio acts as a safety net during times of unforeseen shocks, offering a unique opportunity for adaptation.
Beyond economic considerations, the utilization of natural medicines, such as Aloe vera sap, for treating diseases in poultry and small livestock is of critical importance.This not only reduces mortality rates but also constitutes an additional coping mechanism to combat frequent disease outbreaks linked to climate change [13][14][15].
The profound interdependence between rural livelihoods, well-being, and ecosystem products places communities at heightened vulnerability when confronted with fluctuations in the availability and abundance of these resources [16].Climate change-induced shifts in weather patterns, leading to increased instances of floods, droughts, heatwaves, and more, pose significant threats to both cultivated crops and provision of some forest products [9].However, unlike cultivated crops, forest products in semi-arid areas exhibit a greater degree of resilience and adaptability to climate variability.Therefore, they serve as a vital safety net, offering not only direct access to edible foods, fruits, insects, and income from their sale but also a source of various raw materials [4].But, the conversion of land such as for agricultural expansion often result in the loss of these essential ecosystem products, consequently diminishing the livelihoods and well-being of local communities [17,18].However, the examination of the trade-offs between essential ecosystem products and cultivated crops remains limited in current research.Nonetheless, there is a consensus within the scientific community that underscores the resilience of intact natural systems in semi-arid regions, highlighting their capacity to deliver substantial quantities of ecosystem products [19][20][21][22].
The delivery of ecosystem products across space and time is a complex process, governed by the intricate interactions between biotic and abiotic factors.Factors such as species diversity, landscape heterogeneity, and climatic conditions exert pressure on the availability and distribution of ecosystem products [5].However, human interference, particularly in rural areas of developing countries, introduces an equally critical dimension.The management of local ecosystems by local communities, for instance, through activities, programs, knowledge and skills on propagation of important tree and plant species by communities, are pivotal in shaping the delivery of these products.However, this is largely lacking in many rural areas of developing countries [1,[23][24][25].
Surprisingly, many studies often overlook the impact of human activities on the delivery of ecosystem products, instead focusing mostly on the biotic factors influencing species richness and abundance.Yet, understanding the interplay between human practices and ecosystem product delivery becomes increasingly imperative, particularly in regions where communities heavily rely on local ecosystems for their livelihoods and climate change adaptation [4,10] this urgency intensifies in cases where reliance on rainfed, cultivated crop production faces growing challenges and uncertainties.
For instance, considering the case of cropland expansion, often employed as an adaptation measure in response to frequent droughts.While it may serve as a short-term solution, it simultaneously results in the loss of natural forests and land fragmentation, both of which disrupt the delivery of essential ecosystem products [17,18].
In light of the complex dynamics surrounding forest products and their pivotal role in rural livelihoods and climate change adaptation, our study was undertaken to examine and establish the extent of the contribution of T&NTFPs in rural areas in the Limpopo Basin of Botswana.Our investigation was guided by three core research questions: (i) What T&NTFPs, essential for sustaining local livelihoods, are harvested within the basin?(ii) What is the extent of their contribution to local livelihoods under a changing climate?(iii) What challenges pose threats to the long-term sustainability of T&NTFPs within the basin?We hypothesize that T&NTFPs contribute significantly to supporting local livelihoods under a changing climate within the Limpopo Basin.In this study, we define T&NTFPs as the tangible products collected or harvested by households in woodlands within the Limpopo Basin.

Study area
We focused our study on seven rural villages in Bobirwa sub-district in eastern Botswana (figure 1), located between 28°09′10″E to 29°21′42″E and 22°35′17″S to 21°35′56″S.Bobirwa sub-district lies entirely in the Limpopo River Basin.The sub-district capital (Bobonong) is about 441 km from the capital city in the south-east (Gaborone), about 227 km from the second largest city in the north-east (Francistown) and 138 km from A1 Road that connects Gaborone and Francistown.
The study area is generally flat, with an altitude ranging between 590-886 m above sea level, thus forming the lowest part of Botswana.Bobirwa sub-district experiences semi-arid conditions and frequent droughts, with mean annual rainfall fluctuating between 300 and 400 mm in most years, which falls mainly in summer between October and March [26,27].Despite the semi-arid conditions in Botswana, that part of the Limpopo River Basin has abundant and diverse forest resources such as wood fuel, medicinal plants, and Mopane caterpillars (Imbrasia belina), which thrive on Mopane trees (Colophospermum mopane) abundant in the area [26].The Limpopo Basin is thus ecologically diverse and economically significant for the surrounding communities and beyond.
Villages are under traditional authorities (a Chief, a Tribal Authority, a Chief's Representative, or Headman), but land is allocated by the local Land Board which is part of the local government.All villages are separated from communal grazing areas-'cattle posts'-and crop fields.Households simultaneously engaged in livestock and crop production thus have a 'three-home' system i.e. village, cattle post, and crop fields-the latter two usually have temporary structures [17].
Many households in the study area depend on rain-fed agriculture (maize, sorghum, millet, cowpeas, groundnuts, round nuts, and watermelons) [17] and forest products such as timber, firewood, Mopane caterpillars (Imbrasia belina), wild fruits, thatch, and palm leaves (Hyphaene petersiana) for basketry.These are also harvested or gathered from privately owned lands, often illegally without owners' permission as these are under private tenure [17,28].Cattle, goats, and free-range chickens also form an important source of income, albeit on a subsistence level [14].

Data collection
We employed a mixed methods approach where we used multiple participatory data collection techniquesfocus group discussions, participatory mapping exercises, in-depth interviews with key informants, and semistructured household surveys-and field observations to gather information.This approach allowed for triangulation and verifying the authenticity of gathered data.Data was collected in the local Setswana language between April 2016 and March 2018 as part of the 5-year Adaptation at Scale in Semi-Arid Regions (ASSAR) project in Botswana (2014-2019).The ASSAR project was pre-approved by the Government of Botswana and the Institutional Review Board of the University of Botswana (UBR/RES/IRB/1590 approved on 28 June 2015).Participant consent was also requested prior to engaging participants.

In-depth interviews with key informants
In-depth interviews were conducted with traditional leaders (Chiefs, Headmen, or their representatives), village development committee members, and other knowledgeable individuals (herbalists, traditional healers, harvesters, users, and traders of T&NTFPs) in each village with the aid of a semi-structured interview guide.Guiding questions were aimed at providing insight into the various issues pertaining T&NTFPs in the study area, fishing out issues for discussion during FGD, and for developing the household survey.These interviews provided more insight regarding utilization and institutional arrangements governing different T&NTFPs as well as information regarding the desired future for informing the actions needed to realize it.

Focus group discussions (FGD) and participatory mapping exercises (PME)
Focus Group Discussions (FGD) were conducted simultaneously with Participatory Mapping Exercises (PME) in the seven villages (table 1).An average of three FGD/PME comprising between five and nine participants drawn from diverse livelihoods such as smallholder farmers, T&NTFP harvesters and users, herbalists, and traders were conducted per village.Participants conveniently comprised men and women, including young, adult, and elderly persons purposively selected with the assistance of traditional authorities and village development committees.Thus, all the participants were directly or indirectly involved in the exploitation and/ or trade of more than one T&NTFP.Similar to other studies such as [29][30][31], the FGD/PME identified the available T&NTFPs, including their uses, occurrence (seasonality and locations), and perceived recent changes and causes (quantities, locations, seasonality, land use or land cover).Hard copy A0 maps of the study area were used to indicate locations where different T&NTFPs were harvested or collected during the participatory mapping exercises.Relative importance ranking was done to ascertain the importance of the T&NTFPs in terms of their contribution to immediate livelihood/household requirements-food, income, raw materials, etc- and climate change adaptation.T&NTFPs were ranked by voting using stickers in each FGD/PME.Similar to the study by Herd-Hoare and Shackleton [5], more frequent use and quantities harvested implied more importance.FGDs were also used to identify the current management challenges, including some aspirations of the local communities regarding the future of T&NTFPs.This involved identifying actions, strategies, and programs needed to ensure the sustainability of T&NTFPs in the sub-district.

Household survey
A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect data on the actual T&NTFPs harvested and/or used by households.A total of 130 households randomly selected using numbered village lists were interviewed in the seven villages (Tsetsebjwe-40; Gobojango-20; Molalatau-20; Semolale-20; Moletemane-10; Lepokole-10; Motlhabaneng-10).Random numbers were generated in R studio using specific commands to select a specified number of participants in a given range without replacement.While interviews targeted the head of household (or the most senior person available), other household members were allowed to contribute answers.The questionnaire had a short list of T&NTFPs derived from the FGD/PME and in-depth key informant interviews.This list, together with field observations, guided participants to identify all the different species harvested or collected for each T&NTFP, which aided in producing a long list of different species harvested.The questionnaire also collected household socio-economic and demographic data-age, gender, household size, level of education, employment, monthly income, sources of income, and household assets owned.

Field observations
We conducted field observations with between one and three knowledgeable participants in each village.While this provided more insight of the information gathered during FGD/PME and in-depth interviews, it also allowed the verification of some of the plants identified and the collection of some plant samples for identification of species at the herbarium.Field observations also provided an overview of the general landscape and locations of the different T&NTFPs in relation to the settlements, cattle posts, and croplands.Some of the participants also demonstrated how some of the products, such as natural medicines, were harvested.

Data analysis
Consistent with the multiple methods used in this study, several qualitative data analyses were used.The process of qualitative data analyses involved (1) Data Reduction from the onset of data collection and commenced throughout the data collection based on transcripts and entailed (a) validation of data and checking for consistency and accuracy (b) data analysis (c) categorization of data into themes, (d) thematic analysis; (2) Data presentation & interpretation (3) Conclusion development.Those T&NTFPs accumulating 66%-100%, 33%-66%, and 0%-33% of the votes were respectively ranked as high, medium, and low contributors to livelihoods i.e. household food requirements, income source and/or adaptive capacity.Descriptive statistics such as means, frequencies, percentages, and p-values were used to analyze quantitative data.Statistical analyses were computed in Stata version 10.0.Chi-squared tests were used for hypothesis testing through detecting any significant differences between low-income and high-income households in terms of the income derived from forest products as well as on the adoption of adaptation measures.Weighted means were used to establish the contribution of T&NTFPs to household income.An analysis of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) in the management of forest products was also done using the SWOT framework.

Household socio-economic characteristics
Table 2 shows that the survey participants comprised 18.5% young (20-40 years), 43.1% adult (40-60 years), and 38.5% elderly (>60 years) people.There were 81.5% female participants and 18.5% males.A total of 31.5% of the participants had not completed primary school, while only 33.8% were full-time farmers.There were no significant differences between the proportion of part-time and full-time farmers.The average household size was 5.2.Significant differences between users and non-users of forest products were only observed in the age where young people were significantly fewer.

Non-timber and timber forest products in Limpopo Basin
Several TFP and NTFPs were identified during the various data collection activities in the study area i.e. medicinal plants for treating human and livestock diseases; edible wild fruits; edible caterpillars, and wild animals; and woody species of economic importance (figure 2). Figure 2    and game meat) based on their overall contribution to household cash income, food requirements and raw materials.More details on the individual T&NTFPs are presented in the next section.

Medicinal plants for treating human ailments and livestock diseases
The medicinal plants in Table 3 and 4 were harvested from forests around local villages to treat human and livestock diseases, respectively.For livestock, these were mainly used to manage ailments such as diarrhea, heal wounds, and kill internal parasites.For both human and livestock diseases, the parts mostly utilized were bark and leaves, but roots, seeds, and sap were also commonly used.Preparation included drying, pounding, soaking, etc, and at times, combinations of different medicinal plants were used to prepare certain mixtures.

Wild fruits
Several indigenous wild fruits and raisins (table A1-appendix) were harvested in and around the villages e.g. A. digitata, S. birrea, X. caffra, and A. garkeana.Some wild fruit plants provided additional benefits, such as nuts (S. birrea) and bark used in making natural dyes (B.discolor).Wild fruits were mostly consumed within households but also sold at local markets and along highways.Wild fruit trees were left to grow at homesteads, around village settlements, and on farmlands to provide fruits and shade.A higher proportion of households (62.3%) were in the low-income category, earning income below BWP5,000 per month.The high-income category comprised households earning more than BWP5,000 per month and most of the formally employed belonged to this category.A significant difference was observed between low-income and high-income households in terms of the income derived from forest products such as Mopane caterpillars, firewood, and timber (p = 0.006).In terms of poultry and livestock ownership, households owned an average of 6.63 ± 11.80 poultry (62.3%), 4.54 ± 14.27 cattle (32.3%), 1.23 ± 2.66 donkeys (26.9%), 5.98 ± 9.79 goats (53.8%), and 0.54 ± 4.28 sheep (9.2%).The only significant difference between low-income and high-income households T&NTFPs was in the ownership of poultry (p = 0.023) and goats (p = 0.049).

Woody plants with economic importance
Table 6 shows that households mostly invested in agricultural adaptations to enhance the productivity of crops and livestock.Crop adaptations included purchasing more tolerant crops and crop varieties (76.2%), early maturing crops (72.3%), trying out new crops (38.3%), and investing in grain storage technology (37.7%).Expansion of croplands to grow more crops or stagger cropping was done by 40.8% of the households.Only a few households invested in irrigation (4.6%), such as drip irrigation (2.3%).In terms of livestock adaptations, households purchased supplementary livestock and poultry feeds (32.3%), improved breeds (22.3%), and purchased goats, sheep, and/or local chicken breeds (21.5%).Only a few households started animal rearing and feedlots (9.9%).Borehole drilling was done by 30% of the households.In general, higher proportions of the high-income households adopted different adaptation measures than the low-income households.The only exception was dry-tolerant crops, early maturing crops, and the introduction of irrigation.Significant differences between the low-income and high-income households were only observed in cropland expansion, purchasing of supplementary livestock feed, drilling boreholes or wells, and use of drip irrigation (p < 0.05).

Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in the management of forest products
The local communities identified several strengths, opportunities, and threats in the management of T&NTFPs.These are summarized in table 7.

Challenges in the management and development of forest products
The challenges limiting the management and development of local forest products in the study area were not only biophysical and institutional in nature but also included the efforts to commercialize them (Table 8).

Discussion
This study examined the contribution of timber and non-timber forest products (T&NTFPs) to climate change adaptation in rural areas in the semi-arid Limpopo Basin of Botswana.Our study identified several T&NTFPs that are essential to local livelihoods and climate change adaptation, particularly through enhancing household income [4,6].This was evident from the several forest products that contributed cash incomes to households, over and above direct consumption.For instance, Mopane caterpillars alone contributed a significant proportion to household income (third highest source of income) and a very rich source of protein.Such income often moved households from low-income to high-income categories and was also used to cater to the several livelihood requirements and adaptation initiatives such as the purchase of drought-tolerant and early maturing crop varieties, supplementary livestock feeds, small livestock and local chicken breeds that are more adaptable to harsh conditions.Such significant contribution of forest products to household income, general welfare and adaptation is common among many households in rural areas in Africa and beyond [1,3,5,6].
Though the number of T&NTFPs harvested by each of the households in this study varied greatly, most of the households harvested and/or utilized at least three different forest products.While differences in the utilization of local forest products existed among households, our study did not interrogate the causes.However, this could be due to proximity to local forests, though for some products like Mopane caterpillars and firewood, it was rather complex-people from far and beyond the sub-district also gathered these products.For instance, harvesters travelled far and wide to sites where Mopane caterpillars were abundant and temporarily camped there until quantities declined before moving to other sites.We attributed this to the lucrativeness of the trade in Mopane caterpillars and firewood, which were in high demand in urban markets [5,6,28].For instance, the value of Mopane caterpillars and firewood (particularly Mopane wood fuel) has increased over the years due to the growing demand from large cities such as Gaborone and Francistown, which are 441 km and 227 km away, respectively.A recent study in South Africa by Herd-Hoare and Shackleton also found that the value of some local ecosystem products had increased due to increasing demand from urban centers several hundred kilometers away [5].This also highlights the importance of forest products beyond the rural areas where they are harvested.
However, similar to Ruiz-Pérez et al [32], we argue that the sale of high-value forest products, not their consumption, earned low-income households sufficient income to sustain their livelihoods and take up adaptation measures.Our findings show that income from forest products such as the sale of Mopane caterpillars significantly improved the incomes of some low-income households and allowed them to finance climate adaptation measures such as drilling boreholes, as well as purchasing drought-tolerant and early maturing crop varieties, supplementary livestock feeds and small livestock and local chicken breeds that are more adaptable to harsh climatic conditions.While this is largely true and necessary, however, there is a need to ensure sustainable harvesting and that the value chain benefits local communities through effective governance mechanisms (policies, institutions, regulations, etc.) and local value addition [1,3].
Despite the abundance and diversity of medicinal plants in the Limpopo basin [33], fewer households (15.4%) in the study area utilized medicinal plants for curing human ailments and livestock diseases, with Aloe vera among the most commonly used in both cases.This contrasts with earlier studies by Motlhaka et al that found widespread utilization of medicinal plants in eastern Botswana [33].Several studies elsewhere indicate that the harvesting and utilization of medicinal plants for curing livestock diseases remains high among rural communities [10,[13][14][15].For instance, in the Ambo district of Ethiopia, Berhanu et al found 55 medicinal plants that were used to manage livestock diseases [14].In the remote villages of Tikamgarh district in India, different combinations of 41 plant species were also used to treat at least 36 diseases [13].In this study, barks, leaves, and sap of medicinal plants harvested were mostly used.However, the low utilization of traditional medicines in this study could be due to the availability of modern healthcare facilities and free primary healthcare and synthetic medicines [34].
Firewood was the most used (96.2%)woody product than timber or poles (26.9%).Despite widespread urbanization and connection to the national grid, firewood remains a critical source of energy for cooking (69.3%) and heating (87.6%) for households in the study area [34].This is mainly due to the high cost of electricity and liquid petroleum gas which are often used for the same purpose by many households.However, the electricity challenges facing southern Africa in recent years make firewood a cheaper option for adaptation.
Wild fruits were mostly harvested for direct consumption by many households (67.7%), but these were also sold at local markets and along highways to supplement household income by others (21.5%).The consumption and sale of forest products is extensive in rural Africa and is well-documented [1,6,32].Across the study area, fewer households harvested products such as palm leaves, natural dyes, and thatch.For instance, Aloe vera sap and the bark of Bird plum trees used to make natural dyes for decorating palm leaves used for basketry were only harvested by a few.Basketry products, wooden artifacts, and thatch were made and/or collected by a few households and mainly for sale.However, such activities often require special skills and craftsmanship, as noted by Herd-Hoare and Shackleton [5].Therefore, it was unnecessary and unlikely that many people engaged in these highly exclusive activities.It is also likely that the knowledge, interest, and commitment to harvest and process them has declined, as the case for wooden utensils in South Africa that have been largely replaced by plastic household utensils [5].For instance, medicinal plants entail harvesting specific parts (leaves, branches, roots, bark, bulbs, sap, seeds, etc) that require special processing (i.e., drying, pounding, soaking, boiling, etc.).
As local markets increasingly develop and integrate seamlessly with urban and regional markets, the demand for, and access to local forest products such as basketry products, wooden artifacts, including traditional medicines, wild fruits, and even firewood is expected to grow as the case elsewhere [6,35].We attribute this to modernization and increasing socio-economic connectivity that is increasing the need for cash income [1,5].It is this cash income that becomes very critical in financing household adaptation initiatives, considering that the majority of them were low-income and full-time farmers [4,10].With the increasing precarity of rainfed agriculture in the study area, it is critical that smallholder farmers implement several adaptation measures, such as drilling boreholes and irrigating crops [36][37][38].Such initiatives to improve soil moisture can even reduce the need to expand croplands a measure often used by some farmers to stagger cropping or grow more crops to evade total crop failure.Even government initiatives such as the Integrated Support Programme for Arable Agriculture Development (ISPAAD) which compensates smallholder farmers for tillage and provides them with free inputs, can encourage cropland expansions by attracting new farmers and encouraging current farmers to increase their cultivated area, often into forested areas [39].However, without addressing low soil moisture challenges, farm abandonments may increase due to frequent drought-induced crop failures.Such fragmentation of local forests threatens the sustainability of forest products, which are critical livelihood sources and pathways to climate change adaptation for forest-dependent households [40,41].
Except for Mopane caterpillars and firewood, the low cash incomes derived from T&NTFPs in this study have several explanations.Firstly, the study considered the direct incomes derived from trading in these products, whereas studies elsewhere, such as by Herd-Hoare and Shackleton [5], considered the value of household consumption.Thus, direct cash incomes were lower as households mostly consumed forest products or used them for exchange, with only a few households involved in trading on a cash basis.Secondly, Mopane caterpillars being the third highest source of household income by value (contributed BWP1,647.27± 1,519.04 per month albeit to 42.3% of the households) was due to their high value compared to other forest products.In most cases, households that traded Mopane caterpillars sold to middlemen who would then resale at higher prices at urban centers and to regional consumers.This was also noted by an earlier study [6].And in some reported cases, livestock farmers from South Africa would buy Mopane caterpillars from local households for use as protein supplements in livestock feeds.Other T&NTFPs combined (excluding Mopane caterpillars), like basketry products, palm wine (from palm plants), and wild fruits only contributed BWP780.56 ± 1,360.32 per month, albeit to 25.4% of the households.Nonetheless, there is a scarcity of studies that have assessed the direct and indirect use values of individual forest products in Botswana.There is a need for such studies at the local level to ascertain the full contribution of forest products to local livelihoods.
Comparing the different sources of income and their contribution to household income provides a better perspective on the importance of forest products to climate change adaptation.For instance, Mopane caterpillars, firewood, timber, and other forest products (basketry products, wooden artefacts, thatch, etc) feature among the top ten sources of household cash incomes.However, other sources of cash income, such as small livestock, poultry, and cattle sales, all depend on one or more forest products.For instance, these three depend on medicinal plants to enhance animal health or cure diseases [14,15,42], while small livestock and cattle depend on natural pastures [28,43,44].In some cases, informal trade also involved selling forest products such as fresh and/or dried fruits (baobab, monkey-orange, monkey plum, raisins, bird plum, etc.), medicinal plants, and wooden artifacts and utensils (cooking sticks, spoons, stools, knobkerries, etc.).Smallholder crop production was among the least contributors to household income.This was attributed to the low agricultural productivity [11] and increasing threats of climate change-induced droughts on rainfed agriculture [38].The low income from smallholder crop production thus highlights the challenges of rainfed agriculture.Ipelegeng (a government public works programme where individuals provide casual labour in various developmental activities for cash) also contributed considerable cash income to households in the study area and indeed across Botswana [45].While an individual received an average of BWP 567 for 6 hours of work for 20-22 days a month (approximately US$ 42) in 2018 [45], one bag of dried Mopane caterpillars (50 kg bag) earned BWP 1,500 (approximately US$ 112).Although Mopane caterpillars were harvested only twice per year (March/April and December/January), their income significantly exceeded that from crop production.Besides, the ability to process and preserve-through boiling and drying-ensured that they could be sold for months or even years after their harvest.Notably, income from all the forest products (BWP 3,538.85)formed the topmost contributor to household income, surpassing formal employment, informal trade and Ipelegeng.For Ipelegeng, beneficiaries were required to register every month due to the high supply of casual labour.Where the demand for Ipelegeng was very high, new applicants were given first priority hence there was no guarantee for individuals to be engaged continuously [6,45].
Notwithstanding the current threats, challenges, and weaknesses in the management of forest products and their role in climate change adaptation in the study area, several opportunities exist to enhance their contribution.The sustained demand for high-value products, locally (urban centers, major towns, and cities) and within the region (southern Africa) offers a ready market and opportunity for innovation [5,6].For instance, improved processing and packaging of Mopane caterpillars and dried fruits can add more value and improve household earnings [1,6].This could also address the limited off-farm livelihood activities and reduce the high unemployment rates among young people.Increased cash incomes in the local economy can be very critical to financing the adaptation needs of households.However, there may be a need for partnerships with the private sector, businesses, and relevant non-governmental organizations to enhance knowledge and skills in processing, preservation, value-addition, and entrepreneurship of local players.However, such opportunities often benefit immensely from group marketing, bargaining, and sharing transport costs among those involved.The Women Basketry Cooperative in Mothlabaneng, one of the study villages, is a good example of such an initiative that can also eliminate unnecessary middlemen and extortion from buyers.The government also needs to put in place policies that incentivize, promote, and support the industrialization of rural areas in order to promote modern processing and value-addition of local forest products in order to increase cash incomes hence adaptive capacities of households [6].Moreover, the government must capacitate and strengthen traditional authorities in the regulation, management, and conservation of local resources to make them a more sustainable adaptation option.

Conclusions
The study has shown the critical contribution of forest products to the livelihoods and adaptation initiatives of communities living in rural areas directly through consumption and indirectly through cash income derived therefrom.Mopane caterpillars, timber and firewood, and other non-timber forest products featured in the top ten sources of income of households.Combined, timber and non-timber forest products were the topmost and significant contributors to household cash income (>BWP3,538.85)and significantly enhanced the income of some low-income households, mostly attributed to high-value forest products such as Mopane caterpillars and firewood.While both low-income and high-income households were able to finance some adaptation initiatives such as purchasing drought-tolerant and early maturing crop varieties, grain storage technology, small livestock and local chicken breeds, supplementary livestock feeds, drilling boreholes and using irrigation, the proportion of high-income households who adopted these measures was more than the low-income households indicating the influence of cash income on household adaptation in semi-arid rural areas.Thus, we conclude that T&NTFPs in this study contributed significant cash income that is critical to financing household climate change adaptation initiatives.This is noteworthy considering the increasing precarity of rain-fed agriculture in semi-arid areas [11] and the limited off-farm livelihood opportunities in many rural areas.We also noted the potential threats to the sustainability of local forest products due to the increasing need for cash income driven by rising demand for forest products such as Mopane caterpillars and firewood and the seamless integration with distant urban markets.This and several other institutional and biophysical challenges could constrain livelihoods and limit prospects for effective adaptation in the Limpopo Basin of Botswana.We call for the government to capacitate and strengthen traditional authorities-as custodians of local resources-in the regulation, management, and conservation of forest products to make them more sustainable pathways to effective climate change adaptation.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Map of Bobirwa sub-district showing study villages.

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Proportion of households using and earning income from T&NTFPs.

Table 8 .
Challenges in the management of TFPs and NTFPs in Bobirwa sub-district.Challenge category Description of challenge Biophysical Aspects (B) B1-Lack of data on individual T&NTFPs in the study area.B2-Unsustainable or destructive exploitation of T&NTFPs due to desire for more income.B3-Increasing frequency of climate change impacts threatens the quality and quantity of forest products.B4-Land-use and/or land-cover change, e.g., agricultural expansions.Institutional Arrangements (I) I1-Weak institutional capacity and community organizations to foster sustainable exploitation of T&NTFPs.I2-Inadequate monitoring of forest resources by the Department of Forestry and Rangeland Resources and poor engagement and capacitation of local communities.I3-Weak role of cooperatives in developing T&NTFPs.I4-Lack of community organizations and NGOs to bridge the gap between the local communities and the government.I5-Poor enforcement regulations governing utilization and conservation of T&NTFPs.I6-Weak regulations governing the issuance of harvesting permits and non-compliance to permitted quantities.I7-Lack of policies and regulations to incentivize or promote the development of T&NTFPs value chains.18-Limited government support and lack of revolving budgets for developing T&NTFPs value chains.I9-Lack of platforms for diverse stakeholders to support the development of value chains.I10-Lack of programs & knowledge on the propagation of T&NTFPs e.g.medicinal plants.I11-Limited research to produce scientific and environmental evidence to aid decisions.I12-Poor dissemination of research findings and low uptake of recommendations.Commercialization Efforts (C) C1-Lack of value addition of NTFPs due and low entrepreneurial skills.C2-Limited knowledge, skills, and equipment for processing and value-addition.C3-Poor access to lucrative markets (e.g.towns and cities) due to high transport costs.C4-Lack of cooperation among users and limited bargaining power.C5-Limited role of the private sector, businesses, and NGOs in developing local markets or facilitating access to lucrative markets.C6-Lack of investment in developing local processing industries.Source: Focus Group Discussions & In-depth Interviews.

Table 1 .
Characterization of FGD/PME & household survey participants in selected villages.

Table 2 .
Socio-economic characteristics of survey participants.

Table A2
(Appendix)shows the different woody plants of economic importance in the basin.The common uses included firewood for cooking and heating (e.g. C. mopane, C. edulis, and Combretum sp.), poles for construction (e.g. C. imberbe, C. mopane, and T. prunioides) and timber for making wooden artifacts (e.g. S. birrea).Some woody plants, such as H. petersiana had several uses i.e. stems used as firewood, fronds used for weaving material and thatching, edible fruits, sap for brewing alcoholic beverages, and tender leaves as browse for livestock.

Table 3 .
Medicinal plants for treating and relieving human ailments.

Table 4 .
Medicinal plants for treating poultry and livestock diseases..2.4.Edible wild animals, caterpillars, and birds Among the edible wild animals, caterpillars, and birds, Mopane caterpillars (Imbrasia belina) were very popular among the local communities (table A3-Appendix).These thrived and fed on the leaves of Mopane trees (C.mopane) around homesteads, village settlements, and forests, unlike the wild animals, which were primarily found in protected areas and privately owned farms.Mopane caterpillars were seasonal and harvested twice per year during the December/January and March/April periods.It was reported that hunting of wild animals such as Tragelaphus strepsiceros and Phacochoerus africanus was illegal and hence practiced discreetly and by a few.3.2.5.Other non-timber forest productsNatural dyes derived from fleshy leaves of Aloe vera plants and boiled bark of Berchemia discolor tree (table A4-Appendix) were used for decorating basketry products weaved from the fronds of H. petersiana.Natural pastures were also very critical for livestock production, e.g.cattle.As shown in table A4 (Appendix), several grass species, such as Aristida congesta, Cymbopogon plurinoides, Eragrostis pallens, Stipagrostis uniplumis, and Hyparrhenia spp.were used as thatching material.3.3.Contribution of forest products to livelihoods (income) and climate change adaptationTable5shows that Mopane caterpillars, firewood, and other forest products (wild fruits, basketry products, thatch, wooden artifacts, etc) featured in the top ten sources of household income.The weighted average monthly incomes for households in Botswana Pula (US$1 ≈ BWP13.4) were formal employment-3,325.29 ± 7,070.44,informal trade-1,830.35± 4,187.92,Mopane caterpillars-1,647.27± 1,519.04,casual labor (Ipelegeng)-1,622.29 ± 3,937.65,timber and firewood-1,110.02± 1,980.05,other NTFPs-80.56± 1,360.32,poultry products-521.52± 734.53, crops-416.46± 668.40, small livestock-375.94 ± 551.60, and cattle products-291.92± 3,245.18.

Table 5 .
Household income, income sources and livestock ownership of survey participants.

Table 7 .
Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) in the management of forest products.