The Diversity and Ecology of Macromycetes on Soils of Adjara, Georgia

The publication is devoted to the study of the diversity of the species composition of macromycetes on different soils of Adjara, Georgia. The aim of the study was to identify and determine the composition of on different macroscopic fungi in different soils; establishment of the scale of development and spread of macromycetes in adverse and favorable conditions. Morphological features of collected fruiting bodies, such as shape, size, colour, odor, hymenophore and velum types, etc., were analysed. Spore slides were prepared in glycerin and fuchsin acid and observed under a light microscope. Some samples were isolated on a Malt agar medium, and macroscopic and microscopic characteristics of isolates were observed for precise identification. Identifications were done using relevant literature. At locations in the outdoor area and in the greenhouse, a total of 165 macrofungal species were recorded fruiting on soil, between them 35 species are considered edible, 14 poisonous, while 106 species are inedible Most of the species belong to the division Basidiomycota (151) and only 14 to the division Ascomycota. Identified species distributed in 5 Classes, 13 Orders, 36 families and 68 Genuse. The highest number of soil-inhabiting basidiomycetous macrofungal species was in the forest soil plot (116), followed by the Pasture soil (29). The on families with the highest number of species was Russulaceae (17%), Agaricaceae (15%), Boletaceae (12%), Cortinariaceae (9%) and Psathyrellaceae - 8%, The remaining 31 families-39%. Lactarius, Cortinarius, Russula, Amanita and et al., were the richest genus. All 6 substrates studied, it observed that the species that had a higher frequency were Agaricus subrufescens, Calvatia cyathiformis and Leucocoprinus cretaceus, occurring in soil, soil/litter and pasture. On the other hand, Agaricus campestris, A. rufoaurantiacus, Chlorophyllum hortense and Volvopluteus earlier among others, were collected only from two substrates (soil/and plant residue). The other genera (most of it) occurred in only one substrate. Peaks macromycetes was in May and October, when the average temperature remained between 22 - 26°C and relative humidity between 78% and 92%. The occurrence of macromycetes was higher in May, when the temperature was milder and stable on average 24°C. Found that Adjara support a large and diverse community of macrofungi fruiting on soil, many species of which are previously undiscovered and undescribed. On this basis, works of longer duration and more intensive sampling are needed to obtain data regarding fungal communities, with more attention to specific variables such as microclimate, soil moisture, soil type, soil pH and vegetation types.


Introduction
Soil is the habitat for algae, bacteria, fungi, viruses and protozoa. Among them, fungi are crucial for the environment as well as for the production of food. Theserecycle soil nutrients and generally have a symbiotic relationship with most plants. Fungi provide diverse physical, chemical and biological habitats,are found in large numbers in soilusually between one and ten millionare present per gram of soil [1,2]. Fungi hold key roles in overall ecosystem processes [3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11] Knowledge of the diversity of fungi has considerable significance, especially from the aspect of their role in biodegradation, i.e., degradation of plant residues and carbon cycles in nature, as well as in synthesis of various biologically active agents.However, despite their functional importance, they are often overlooked and left out of conservation initiatives [12,13,14]. Studies of soils fungi in the Adjara, Georgia began 35 years ago [15,16]. In this region, soil Mycromicetes is well studied [17,18]. As for the soil macroscopic fungi of Adjara, the present time has not been studied.
Outcomes of this, the purpose of this study was to investigate the diversity of macromycetes in outdoor areas and the greenhouse of the Adjara; Establishment of the scale of development and distribution of fungi in adverse and favorable conditions; to determine whether specific environmental conditions and floristic content have effects on their development.
Collections of thespecies have been examined by standard light microscopy (Pereval, Carl Zeiss, Jena and Olympus, BX50, Hamburg,Germany). The SEM micrographs have been prepared by means of a JSM-35 (Japan) SEM microscope. The specimens examined are deposited at HAL, KW and TGM (23). Species identification was based on the morphological characteristics of single-spored isolates as described by [19,20]

Isolation of fungi
Fruiting bodies were photographed in natural habitats and data on the substrate, neighbouring plants and collection dates were noted. Morphological features of collected fruiting bodies, such as shape, size, colour, odor,hymenophore and velum types, etc., were analysed. Spore slides were prepared in glycerin and fuchsin acid and observed under a light microscope (Zeiss Axio Imager M.1, with AxioVision Release 4.6 software). Some samples were isolated on a Malt agar medium, and macroscopic and microscopic characteristics of isolates were observed for precise identification.

Identification of fungi
Identifications were done using relevant literature [21][22][23][24][25][26]. Fungal classification and nomenclature are in compliance with Index Fungorum, and a list of species is presented in alphabetic order. Species were also classified in the ecological-trophic groups defined by Arnolds [27].

Results and discussions
3.1. Systematic analysis of macromycetes During the longterm survey period at locations in the outdoor area and in the greenhouse In total, 163 macrofungal species were recorded fruiting on soil. Most of the species belong to the division Basidiomycota (151) and only 14 to the division Ascomycota. Identified species distributed in 5 Classes, 13 Orders, 36 families and 68 Genuse (Table 1). The on families with the highest number of species was Russulaceae (17 %), Agaricaceae (15%), Boletaceae (12 %), Cortinariaceae (9 %) and Psathyrellaceae -8%, The remaining 31 families -39% ( Figure 1). The in genus with the highest number of species was Lactarius, Cortinarius, Russula, Amanita and et al.   In the case of poisonous species (Figure 3), 8 species are from the genus Amanita (A. bisporiger, A.  citrina, A. gemmata, A. muscaria, A. pantherina, A. porphyri, A. regalis, A. verna) , three from the genus Inocybe (I. geophylla, I. napipes, I. rimosa), two from the genus Cortinarius (C. pavoniu, C. sanguineus) and genus Paxillus (P. involutus).
Inter-annual variation of mushroom species diversity was also observed. Human activities contribute positively to mushroom diversity in the study area by creating some unique micro-habitats that support thximum conservation of mushroom diversity, conservation measures excuding all human activities should be avoided.  Observations, showed that occurrence peaks macromycetes was in May and October, when the average temperature remained between 22 -26°C and relative humidity between 78% and 92%. The occurrence of macromycetes was higher in May, when the temperature was milder and stable on average 24°C, the monthly precipitation was well distributed around 126 mm and the average relative humidity of 92%. The occurrence of a long period without rainfall in March and April, as well as higher average temperature in the range of 28°C did not allow the growth of the mushroom, despite the relative humidity remaining around 83%. Despite the low rainfall in July and August, a small number of macromycetes found due to the temperatures around 22 º C, which decreased evapotranspiration. In November and Aprilt was recorded the lower occurrence of Agaricales. In periods where there was too much rain, the amount of collected samples decreased. Our findings suggest that spatial processes, perhaps dispersal limitation, and light availability were the most important factors affecting macrofungi community in broad-leaved forest. zsxdeSimilar results have been obtained by various researchers [27,28,29].                 From the collected soil samples, theoccurrence of species in different samples soil is shown in Table 2 (presence"+" and absence"-"); S=saprotrophic; M = mycorrhizal.

Conclusion
As the the first monitoring of macromycetes in the Adjara, Georgia the present study increases our knowledge about the biodiversity of that area and about the mycobiota in general.
Determined that neither rainfall nor temperature could separately explain conclusively the variation in fruiting body emergence of macrofungi fruiting on soil.
Revealed that most species fruiting on soil emerged in the season in Adjara May and October in all 6 plots.
However, because individual fruit bodies of ectomycorrhizal species were not traced to their host species, the above finding cannot be explained. Highlights that works of longer duration and more intensive sampling are needed to obtain data regarding fungal communities, with more attention to specific variables such as microclimate, soil moisture, soil type, soil pH and vegetation types.