Working in the global world: looking for more modern workplace overseas

International labor migration overseas is very complex and involves multiple dimensional issues, ranging from economic to social, political, and cultural issues. A very long history migration has affect the live of households which has been dependent very much on it, not only in economic terms but also in broader aspects.This research aim is to understand the history and process of international labor migration from the District of Ponorogo. The research was done using mixed method design, combining quantitative and qualitative approaches. Firstly, a survey was done by involving about a thousand households and followed with qualitative method applying in-depth interviews and FGDs to sub-samples households and some key informants. The results have shown that intergenerational migration has established in Ponogoro. There has been an expansion of destination countries with the establishment of many international migration routes. Migrant workers from Ponorogo have traveled to very distant continents and to more modern countries.


Introduction
The history of migration between regions is comprehensively described by [5]. Migration is a spatial interaction which already has been long occurred in the development of human live. As the interaction between geographical regions, population decided to move from one place to another mainly for surviving. In the history of human, people were dynamic and performed the geographical migration in order to fulfill their life necessities [8]. So, perspective of regions was more corresponding as the basic analysis of population migration [11]. Dynamic of sending migrant workers Indonesia was inseparable from the history of international population mobility in the world. That is why, it is important to understand the dynamic of Indonesian labour overseas through history.
At least there were five big phases of international migration which influenced the population dynamic of the world [9]:  era of the slave trade  era of indentured workers  era of Europe to the new World  era after World War II  era of doors closed to Europe.
During the slavery era, geographical migration was more caused by reason of food gathering. This phase took place since people started to do hunting and fishing or food gathering which continued until at the early of the Middle Ages (about the 15th century). As the example of international migration in the Middle Ages was the invasion of Ancient Mongol and Roman in the world. The slavery was recognized as the beginning of labour migration history in the world. It was estimated that around 40 million of world population who are recently in America were from the slavery era. Even though now slavery has been eliminated, labour migration in other forms, as indentured workers, keeps on occurring.
Next era was indentured labour and the coolie system. Along the passage of time, started from the middle of the 19th Century, the slavery was gradualy turned into forced labour system. The coolie system was emerging in during the colonial era by sending many labours from China, India and Asia to British colonies, France, German and Dutch, such as to North America, Caribbean Islands, Africa, Asia and Australia. Number of collie workers to be sent at that time was estimated as 37 million people. Migration under the collie system kept on happening until the end of World War I in 1941. Around 1840 to 1939 was the era of industrial revolution in Europe which followed by colonial period of new countries or known as from Europe to the "New World". This phase was assumed to be the beginning of modern labour migration under the reason of economic development and profit oriented. It was stated that in the period of 1891-1920 as much as 27 million of population, mainly from South and East Europe, have left Europe. This continued to happen until the First World War, but at that time the number decreased and then stopped at the Second World War. During the period of 1846-1939, 51 million of population has left Europe. Detailed according to the destination countries were United States of America (38 millions), Canada (7 millions), Argentina (7 millions), Brazil (4.6 millions) and around 2.5 million went to Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.
The next phase in the history of international migration of world population was after the Second World War  Other side of after the Second World War was that some countries, such as German, British and France, needed labours from the neighboring countries to work on various public facilities reconstruction, such as from Italy, Portugal, Spain, Yugoslavia and Turkey. Aside from European labours, many labours were also imported from Asia and Africa. In the reconstruction era, it was estimated that around 10 million people were entering West Europe.
Year 1973-2002 was the era for "Closing Europe for Migrants". Year 1970 was the peak of number of people heading for Europe. As for the example, British has been accepting immigrants from the former British colony which were incorporated in the British Commonwealth so many immigrants entered the UK until the end of 1960s. The economic growth has increased rapidly which reached to 5 percent each year at that time. The economic problems started to occur in 1973 when oil price shock took place. This condition has caused the migrants to start expanding their destination countries not only to Western Europe, but to Southern Europe, such as Italy, Spain and Portugal.
The closing of Europe did not just cause the economical recession, but also raised the number of refugees and/or asylum seekers caused by the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe. The collapse of communism in the middle of 1980s has caused people of Eastern Europe to be more freely in choosing their residence. It was reported that in 1989-1998 there were more that 4 million of people were seeking for asylum in Europe (43 percent from Europe, 35 percent from Asia and 19 percent from Africa). This problem then tricked the European countries to limit, even to shut the migration entering Europe. This migration happened in all over the world heading to countries which were assumed to be able to provide security (figure 1). The drastically increase of oil price in 1973 in Europe which followed by the closing of Europe to the immigrants has given a positive impact on oil producing countries in the Middle East. The economic growth of oil producing countries, such as as Saudi Arabian, United Arab Emirates, Quwait, Bahran and Iraq, increased rapidly during 1974-1980. This condition also caused a rapid development in many living sectors in those countries. The needs of labours was also increasing, especially in domestic sectors, such as housemaids, baby sitters and drivers, as well as contruction sectors, such as construction workers.
The history of international population migration in Europe also connected to the sending of Indonesia labours to overseas, spesifically from Kabupaten Ponorogo. People in Ponorogo also had a long history in sending their migrants workers abroad. In general, the overseas workers sending was categorised into two periods: the period before the independence and the period after the independence of Indonesia. Before the independende, the history of Ponogoro's labours sending has started. Indonesia has been a part of maritime trading in the South East Asia for a period of time along with Malaysia, Singapore and the Phillipines which used to be knows as Malay World.The trading and migration in these regions already happened in the past which started from the glory of Malacca Kingdom and involved many people in the economic activities from Sumatera, Singapore and Malaysia. The phenomenon of merantau (going abroad) for people from Sumatera has also supported the development of trading in Malacca and the regions around it [7].
The sending of huge number of labours during the Netherlands colonial happened when the implementation of forced cultivation in the colonial of Netherlands. The sending of labours abroad at that time was closer to the term of forced cultivation workers or contract-coolie instead of migrant workers (Hugo, 2004). Many of forced cultivation workers were sent to several Dutch East Indies colonies, such as to Malaya, Suriname and Caledonia, as construction and agriculture workers. In 1930 many of Javanese people were sent as agriculture workers, such as to Malaya (259,735 people), Suriname (31,000 people) and Caledonia (6,000 people). Asides from that, around 8,000 Javanese people also worked in Sabah dan Sarawak [1].
However, based on the data provided, in 1860-1930 Indonesia also received many migrants which dominated by Chinese and European people [3]. As recorded during 1860-1900 the number of Chinese and European people was doubled, so was during 1900-1930. The Netherlandscolonie in Indonesia at that time has opened opportunity of labours in the industry and trading sectors. The growth of Chinese and European people in Indonesia happened during 1860-1930 and in general has increased the number of the population continuously (table 1).   The history of labour migrants from Ponorogo to overseas before the independence was also associated with the development of international migration in the world. There were at least three important things which related to the history of migrant workers from Ponorogo. First was the history of Ponorogo; second was religious journey for hajjs and thirdly was the colonization of the Dutch colonial era. At the end of the Kingdom of Majapahit, migration of Ponorogo's population has occurred, primarily the migration under the purpose of trading towards the ports in the coast of Java, such as Demak, Jepara, Tuban, Gresik and Surabaya. The ports grew to be small kingdoms which had trading relations with Malacca and then separated themselves from Majapahit. The strong interaction has created the trading system known as Malay World. The interaction between Ponorogo residents and ports in the Java coastal regions, mainly with Demak and Surabaya, grown to be strong since they had a leader who was a descendant of Prabu Brawijaya [10].
Interaction between Demak as a great empire with Kadipaten Ponorogo has existed since the beginning of 16 th Century. At that time Demak was led by Raden Patah who was Prabu Brawijaya's son. Meanwhile at the same time another son of Prabu Brawijaya, Raden Katong, also established Ponorogo under the assistance of Seloaji and Kiageng Mirah [6]. Asides from being the sons of Prabu Brawijaya, cooperation between Raden Patah and Raden Katong was also in form of trading between the fellow Moslems. Initially the relationship between Ponorogo's residents with ports on the north coast of Java was originally purely economic and trading as fellow descendants of Majapahit, but gradually it became religious relationship. Direction of migration of Ponorogo population during development of Demak Empire to the outside areas was done through ports of Java's coastal areas, such as Demak, Jepara, Tuban, Gresik and Surabaya, then connected heading to Malacca.
During the Dutch colonial, migration of Ponorogo's population to outside areas occurred through a mechanism of contract workers or coolie system. Migration of workers from Ponorogo in the era of colonization took place towards the plantation areas were opened by the Dutch Government. Plantation areas which were developed at that time were the plantations in Sumatra, such as in Lampung, Jambi and Metro. Around 1938 the Dutch Government brought population of Madiun, Kediri, and Ponorogo toward Lampung, Jambi and Metro. Then the sending of workers continued under the control of Dutch Government until the arrival of the Japanese army in 1942 [10]. Long before coolie system was applied, some history books described that in the early 19 th century there had been a transfer of workers from Ponorogoto Malaysia. In the 19 th century in the Malay Peninsula which was occupied by the British colonial, the economic expansion occurred in three sectors, namely food agriculture, export agriculture and mining, thus a large amount of labours was required. Having small number of residents in the Malay Peninsula caused British colonial had to import people from China, India and Java.
There were many of Java's population who has migrated to the Malay Peninsula. Initially most of them worked as labours on farms and exports, such as sugar cane, coffee, pepper, cinnamon and tobacco. The rubber industry in the Malay Peninsula began to grow in the last decade of the 19th century. At that time of British colonial ordered the businessmen to plant rubber since the crops had better future compared to other types of crops. Rubber prices were also high at that time. Then the British Government created policies which forced the businessmen to plant rubber. After that, they recruited many of Java's population to work as rubber plantation workers. This process continued until the beginning of the 20 th century. The rapid development of plantation crops, farm exports and mining have caused many residents of Java with illegal channels migrated to the Malay Peninsula to work.
Path of migration of Javanese people (Bawean, Bali, Madura, Demak, Gresik, Tuban, Lamongan, Surabaya, Tulungagung, Ponorogo) followed the path of both legal and illegal courses. Transportation lines used was the sea pathway ship. There were at least five pathways for Ponorogo population to migrate to Malaya as follows.
1. Java-Mallaca 2. Java-Singapore-Mallaca 3. Java-Singapore-Penang-Mallaca 4. Java-Belawan Port-Singapore-Mallaca 5. Java-Jambi Port-Mallaca. The first pathway, which was Java directly to Mallaca, was conducted under the coordination of British Government to transport workers from Java with the shipping pathway to go directly to the Malacca. The need for labours in the food crops required the British Government to seek for cheap labours from Java. Labours were collected through several ports in Java, such as Port of Batavia, Cirebon, Demak, Semarang, Tuban, Gresik and Surabaya. Migrant workers from Ponorogo to Malacca passed the pathways in the ports of Surabaya, Gresik, Tuban, Bawean, and Demak. The second pathway was from Java towards Malacca, but a stopped over in Singapore. As the first pathway, the second pathway was also carried out under the coordination with the British Government. Recruitment of workers was conducted by the agency in coordination with the Government of the Dutch East Indies in Java. The labours were not only heading to Malacca, but also to the Port of Singapore. The rapid grow of plantations in Singapore also required a lot of workers. Therefore, not all Javanese workers were brought to Malacca since most of them were then employed in Singapore. As in the first pathway, Ponorogo migrant workers sent through the ports in Surabaya, Gresik, Tuban, Bawean, and Demak.The third line was the route to Malacca but stopped over in Singapore then Penang and Malacca to the final. This third pathway was conducted since there was the development of export plantations, mainly in pepper and rubber. The British government opened a lot of plantations, including in Penang. Recruitment of workers was increasing and conducted by the British government with the help of the agency. Coordination with the Government of the Dutch East Indies in Java also performed. The Dutch East Indies Government permitted the placement of workers as long as there was a guarantee of protection for workers from Java. This pathway was more complex since it must go through Penang prior to Malacca. Migrant workers from Java, including from Ponorogo, were sent through the ports in Surabaya, Gresik, Tuban, Bawean and Demak.
The fourth pathway was the pathway of migrant workers from Java to Malacca, but through Belawan Port and then to Singapore and lasted in Malacca. This pathway was the result of the British Government agreement with the Dutch East Indies. Trading and transportation between the ports of Belawan, Penang, and Malacca have facilitated the delivery of labours. In addition, the Dutch also had an interest in bringing in labours from Java to work on the plantations of Sumatra.
The fifth pathway was the sending pathway of migrant workers from Java to Malacca via Port of Jambi. The fifth pathway was supported by two important things, namely the rapid export of agricultural plantations, such as rubber, and the enactment of forced cultivation system by the Dutch Government. On this pathway the Dutch East Indies Government had an interest also in sending a lot of migrants from Java to be hired cheaply in many plantations in Sumatra through Port of Jambi. Therefore, most workers from Java were dropped in Jambi while others were headed towards Malacca.
The migration process of Javanese workers from the first to fifth pathways is ongoing. The increasingly complex relationship facilitates the movement of migrant workers from Java without having to go through a formal recruitment process. As lasted until now, many migrants who worked in Malaysia plantations were through these pathways which have formed since a long time ago. The switching was done amicably, by intermediaries of relatives and friends. Those longstanding relationships coupled with the rapidly evolving information technology have been further simplifying the process of migrating workers from Ponorogo to Malaysia. The displacement of workers into Malaysia continues to grow increasingly complex, not only as a destination for workers from Java, but also workers who come from Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi.
Sending of migrant workers in the period after the independence of Indonesia could be divided into two phases. First was after the independence until the late of 1960s (the Old Order era) and second was since the New Order era (1970 to the present). Sending of migrant workers at the Old Order era tended to be individuals and/or based on kinship using the trading pathway mechanism and the departureswere still traditional. Some studies suggested that the role of government was still low, while the presence of friends, intermediaries and brokers/taikong tended to be more dominant in this process. The main destination countries were Malaysia and Saudi Arabia. These two countries have become major destinations since the similarity of religion and especially for Malaysia, it was also confirmed that there were existence of a common language and cross-border relations between countries. The departure to Malaysia was usually temporary because they only worked for the provision of achieving the ultimate goal, namely to Saudi Arabia to perform the Hajj. Before and/or after the pilgrimage, many Indonesian migrants under the status of migrant workers worked in Saudi Arabia. This process went on so many Indonesian people later settled and became citizens of Saudi Arabia. "It has been long, Sir, long before worried period of the Communist party, I already lived in Arab. I don't know for sure, I worked there until my family, including my parents and many others came to follow me here, performed the pilgrimage, then after that they felt comfort enough to stay here (krasan), worked there until now. I have been assisted many people from Blembem to work in Arab" (Rjt, 2013).
"Asides from reog community, we are also religious community … to perform the pilgrimage is the special pride we hold, as NU people, that is the main thing and should be put into reality. Many people here who already performed the pilgrimage, even long before the Indonesia's independence, they went to Malaysia then went straight to Arab, many of them did not come home" (Gwn, 2014). Both of these excerpts show that in Ponorogo, the migration process also has been going on since a long time, even before the Indonesia's independence. Indonesian migrants, including from Ponorogo, were generally taken by the party which in charge of Hajj and/or Umrah. In addition, Indonesian migrants who have been settled for a long period of time in Saudi Arabia also played a very important role. For migration to Malaysia, the condition which supported it was that he presence of cross-border migration towards Malaysia. Cultural and linguistic similarities enabled Indonesian citizens to work in Malaysia. After 1970 many Indonesian citizens have exodused to Malaysia. Most of them worked only for temporarily period and then continued the journey to Saudi Arabia. Many of those also worked for a long time and even permanently became Malaysian citizens. The journey of migrant workers from Ponorogo with Saudi Arabia as their main destination for Hajj and Umrah was done through five different pathways.
It was also implied that the form of migration which occurred in the Old Order era was a leapfrog migration and chain migration using the track of family and/or friends. Leapfrog migration was migration which was not getting to the destination directly, but through other areas in between. As an example, the migration which occurred in the Old Order era to Saudi Arabia. Initially the migration actors were headed to Malaysia in advance to work then later after they had sufficient supplies, they continued the trip to Saudi Arabia. Meanwhile it was called as chain migration because it happened gradually, bit by bit, through family and friends. It could be observed that the trip pathway of migrant workers from Ponorogo to Saudi Arabia for the purpose of pilgrimage or Umrah could be categorized into five trip pathways as below.
1. Pathway I was the departure of migrant workers directly from Ponorogo to Saudi Arabia. This pathway was usually done with the shipping lines, conducted by several people at the same time as well as involving (kiyai) religious leaders, and community. Among them, there was a guide who knew the path of travel of Ponorogo toward Saudi Arabia. 2. Pathway II was the departure with the main destination of Saudi Arabia through Bawean. This migration path involved migrant workers and religious leaders. As previously stated that the pathway of Ponorogo-Bawean-Malacca as a trade and shipping pathways workers have been formed as a cooperation between the British Government in Malaya with the Dutch East Indies government in Indonesia. This cooperation has also formed a travel route heading to Saudi Arabia for pilgrimage purposes. Many of the migrant workers, through an agent, worked in Saudi Arabia, both before and after the Hajj. 3. Pathway III was the departure with the main destination of Saudi Arabia through West Malaysia. This was a form of gradual migration of workers from Ponorogo: first they worked in various plantations in West Malaysia before heading to Saudi Arabia. Labor export program from Java to the plantation crops, farm exports, and mining in Malaya which have occurred since the beginning of the 19th century has been supporting the development of this third pathway. Pathway III also supported the fact of the existence of Ponorogo community in Malaysia, such as in the area of Batu Pahat, Sri Medan, Johor and Selangor. 4. Pathway IV was the departure with the main destination of Saudi Arabia through East Malaysia (Sarawak). This form of gradual migration has similarity to the third pathway. At first migrant workers worked in various plantations in East Malaysia before heading to Saudi Arabia. This pathway was also supported by the labor export program from Java to the plantation crops, farm exports, and mining in Malaya which have occurred since the beginning of the 19th century. 5. Pathway V was the departure with the main destination of Saudi Arabia through Bawean then headed West Malaysia and East Malaysia before reached Saudi Arabia. The connection between Ponorogo and Bawean which has existed for a long periode of time supported the forming of Pathway V. Many residents of Ponorogo resided in Bawean. Delivery of Indonesian migrant workers in large numbers which managed by the government occurred from the 1970s. The main destination countries were Middle East countries which at that time was experiencing an oil boom. This condition has caused the countries in the Middle East required a lot of cheap labours with male labours as the main target. Most of them worked on construction and processing works. The requirement of male labours in the Middle East during 1970s was also addressed by several informants from Ponorogo as follows.
"My grandfather was an elder Kyai here; at first he just went there to perform the pilgrimage. There were many jobs there with high payment so he didn't go back home directly. He worked as well as performed the hajj there. At the time, many men went there to perform the Pilgrimage" (Rjt, 2013).
"At first many men went to Arab, but now the opposite of it happened … many who went to Arab were women. Men preferred to go to Malaysia or Korea … so the number of women now are much more than men" (Ntj, 2013). The high price of oil in the world which began in the 1970s has led to prosperity for many oilproducing countries in the Middle East, such as Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait, and United Arab Emirates. This prosperity was followed by a variety of employment opportunities which were created so that the local population (the population in the oil-producing countries) left out various menial jobs, such as construction workers, domestic work, drivers and babysitters. This condition caused job opportunities in the domestic sector and the menial work [4]. This influenced the needs of many workers in the domestic sector as housekeepers and babysitters.
An organized delivery of migrant workers by the government was based on Government Regulation No. 4/1970 regarding the program of Inter Regional labour sending (Program Antar Kerja Antar Daerah/AKAD) and program of Inter-State labour sending (Antar Kerja Antar Negara/AKAN). In the period of 1970-1980 was the starting point of the recruitment of women in large numbers to be placed in Saudi Arabia. The connection between Ponorogo-Malaya-Saudi Arabia which has been formed long ago supported the delivery program of female migrant workers.
Overseas migration pathway of migrant workers from Ponorogo during 1970 -1980 was a migration pathway to Malaysia and Saudi Arabia. Migration of workers which has lasted for long, started since the establishment of Kadipaten Ponorogo, the sending of workers to Malaya during the colonial era, as well as through the pathway of pilgrimage, as a whole has supported the development of the number of migrant workers to Malaysia and Saudi Arabia. This fact was also supported by number of people from Ponorogo who have settled, both in Malaysia and Saudi Arabia. Migration pathway towards Malaysia and Saudi Arabia continues to evolve until today so that the two countries are considered on the top of the list in terms of the number of migrant workers. Migration path to Saudi Arabia during this period was divided into two: indirect and direct pathways.
First, the indirect pathway was not direct migration pathway of migrant workers from Ponorogo who made their transit first prior to Saudi Arabia. It hase been noted that before getting to Saudi Arabia, migrant workers transited in some places. The purpose of transitting in Malaysia was to work first before heading to Saudi Arabia for the Hajj. These indirect pathways were included Ponorogo- Sending of migrant workers from Ponorogo during 1980-1990 was related to the development of the various destination countries. The government intensively developed the sending programs of migrant workers by cooperating with the private sectors, such as recruitment agencies as well as by the implemention of migrant workers' placement. Service of migrant workers' placement abroad locally was carried out by Regional Office of Depnakertranskop in the provincial level and Office of Depnakertranskop II in the district level. The result of this cooperation was the increasingly extensive network with overseas destination countries which was also varied, such as Singapore. The new sending pathways of migrant workers also headed toward East Asia, such as Hong Kong, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan. Sending of migrant workers from Ponorogo even reached some European countries, such as Spain, the Netherlands, Italy, and France.  Period of 2000-2010 was called as the era of globalization in sending migrant workers abroad. As a result of the increasingly complex international relationships, variations in destination countries were also increasingly widespread. Ponorogo's migrant workers have far reached all the continents, even to small countries, such as Cyprus, Maldives, Fiji, Mauritius, Suriname and New Zealand. Globalization of migrant workers from Ponorogo was also supported by the modernization of information, namely the use of a mobile phone. Utilization of mobile phone has cut the distance for mutual communication, both between workers, with the families, or with employment agencies. New pathways of migration which were formed was the development of migrant workers on the type of formal employment, either with the scheme of Government to Government (G to G), Government with the Company (G to C), as well as the scheme of the Company to Company (C to C).

Conclusion
International migration in Ponorogo has been going on since 500 years ago. There are three important things that need to be addressed. Firstly, the intensity of migration is higher and does not involve only one particular group or population characteristic. Migration is more general, not limited by age, sex, and marital status. Secondly, there has been an expansion of destination countries with the establishment of many international migration routes. This has resulted in an increasingly complex relationship between migrant workers from Ponorogo and overseas. Migrant workers from Ponorogo have traveled to distant continents, to modern countries, to global world, even to small countries such as Cyprus, Maldives, Fiji, Mauritius, Surinam and New Zaeland. Thirdly, the phenomenon of migration has eliminated the physical barriers of state boundaries. The development of information technology, for example with the use of mobile phones (HP) to make the barrier between Ponorogo and the destination increasingly disappeared. The use of this mobile phone has cut the distance to communicate between each worker, with family, and with employment agencies. This shows that interaction can be done at any time without limited distance. There has been a globalization of workers unrestricted by distance. Nowadays Indonesian migrant workers are facing new way of lifes, that is a digital era that futher embedded into world system of migration.