Role of Agriculture on Rural Household Food Security: A Systematic Review from Indonesia

Rural areas are crucial for agriculture in Indonesia, particularly in local rice production. However, many rural communities face challenges accessing safe and nutritious food due to limited transportation infrastructure, restricted local markets, and low incomes. The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated these issues by disrupting food supply chains and worsening food insecurity. This systematic review examines how local food production, including agriculture, contributed to food security in early COVID-19 rural Indonesia following the PRISMA procedure. The author uses five databases including, EBSCO Host, ScienceDirect, Taylor & Francis, Wiley, and GARUDA. Search using keywords food security, access, local production, rural, agriculture, pandemic COVID-19, and Indonesia. Fifteen studies showed most rural communities faced food insecurity at the start of the pandemic due to lockdowns and higher non-household expenses. Nevertheless, some villages remained food secure, relying on local agriculture and plantations. The findings of this review can provide valuable direction for implementing focused mitigation plans in particular areas to reduce the effects of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and future global events on rural food security.


Introduction
Food security is one of the crucial aspects in ensuring the well-being and survival of a nation, particularly in Indonesia, an agrarian country with a growing population.However, recent years have seen increasing complexity and challenges in achieving food security, especially in rural areas.Rural areas in Indonesia are an integral part of the nation's economy.They contribute to agriculture production and serve as custodians of farming traditions and local culture [1].Nevertheless, rural areas also face various challenges in maintaining food security.The urban-rural divide persists, and rural regions frequently require assistance in accessing the resources, technology, and infrastructure essential for boosting agricultural productivity [2].Despite rural areas holding the largest agricultural sector in Indonesia, before the COVID-19 pandemic, many rural regions experienced food insecurity [3].In contrast to urban areas with more organized access and food supply chains, many rural areas still heavily rely on local agricultural produce for their food sources [4].In this urgent situation, people's lifestyle is forced to adapt, including dietary patterns.According to the Central Statistics Agency (Badan Pusat Statistik), in 2020, approximately 43.3% of the population resides in rural areas.This data highlights the ongoing issue of a substantial portion of Indonesia's population being deprived of their right to adequate food security [5].1324 (2024) 012132 IOP Publishing doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1324/1/012132 2 Amid the COVID-19 pandemic, lockdowns and restrictions have disrupted societal activities, causing problems with food supply chains, economic stability, and access to healthcare and nutrition services [3,4].The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) states that food insecurity has risen, impacting approximately 29.3% of the worldwide population, equivalent to around 2.3 billion individuals [6].COVID-19 has created food security issues in multiple countries, including Indonesia, one of the active participants in the global economy [2,7].
The increasing prevalence of food insecurity due to the pandemic has exacerbated global malnutrition issues.Food insecurity can lead to a deterioration in the nutritional quality of food consumed by individuals of all age groups, including adults and children within households [8].This can result in inadequate nutrition, characterized by insufficient intake of essential nutrients, excessive consumption of energy-dense but nutrient-poor foods, as well as micronutrient deficiencies [9].According to IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute), around 45 million children under five suffer from wasting, a severe form of malnutrition associated with high mortality risk [10,11].Prompt evaluations were already documenting severe food and livelihood emergencies during the early period of the COVID-19 pandemic.Studies examining the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on global food security [12], the Asia-Pacific region [13], national levels [2], and urban areas in Indonesia [4] have been conducted.As indicated by the Global Food Security Index (GFSI), Indonesia's food security improved from a score of 59.2 in 2021 to 60.2 in 2022, yielding improvement.However, it is essential to note that Indonesia's food security remains below the Asia-Pacific regional average index of 63.4 [14,15].
The COVID-19 pandemic's global reach, spanning over 200 countries, can trigger severe food insecurity and malnutrition in vulnerable populations in low-and-middle-income countries (LMICs), including Indonesia [16][17][18].The occurrence of acute food insecurity during disasters, including global pandemic COVID-19 contributes to approximately 10% of the worldwide prevalence of food insecurity [19].The copping strategy to address this issue is through compromising on the quality and quantity of food, selling assets, and borrowing money [20].Prior to COVID-19, urban and rural communities faced unequal access to food.Research consistently shows that urban populations have better food access, availability, and utilization compared to rural populations.Two key factors contribute to this issue: structural challenges, such as inadequate infrastructure to support food distribution, and the occurrence of unexpected events or stressors, such as floods and seasonal road inaccessibility [16].None of the previous studies discuss the prevalence of lockdown policies during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic and their impact on rural food security in Indonesia.
In 2015, the United Nations assembled the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for tackling critical global issues.Comprising 17 interlinked objectives, strive to eradicate poverty, safeguard the environment, and promote universal prosperity by 2030.Our research, focused on assessing the influence of agriculture on food security within rural households in Indonesia, predominantly corresponds to SDG 2 (Zero Hunger).SDG 2 is dedicated to eradicating hunger and ensuring access to wholesome and safe food, making agriculture a crucial component in achieving this goal.By investigating the links between agricultural practices, encompassing food production, accessibility, and distribution, and their impact on rural communities, we aim to enhance comprehension of these critical dynamics [21].This study helps to identify the structural problems occurring in rural communities that cause a lack of access to nutritious food and severe hunger for a long period.This study is also associated with SDG 1 (No Poverty), where rural food security is closely related to poverty.When health food insecurity occurs, there is a significant biological and psychosocial stressor that, through various mechanisms, may put people at risk for poor emotional, intelligence, and social development throughout their lives [22].It is necessary to have sufficient financial resources and for food to be easily accessible in the nation, area, and communities where the residences are to obtain a balanced and nutritious diet.Excellent agriculture practices can help reduce poverty by increasing agricultural productivity and incomes of rural communities, thereby contributing to SDG goal 1 [2].
As of June 2023, the World Health Organization (WHO) has officially announced the end of the global health crisis triggered by COVID-19 [23].Most countries have returned to pre-pandemic conditions.However, the COVID-19 pandemic has left unresolved issues in the food system that require further action [19,20].It is crucial to acknowledge the possibility of future disease pandemics, especially the emergence of new infectious diseases (EID) with global implications [21,22].Indonesia, as a developing country, faces challenges in achieving food security that have been exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic.Despite being an agricultural country, issues like land-use change and limited resources persist [1,23].Indonesia should focus on agricultural intensification, youth engagement, and diversification to overcome food access challenges.The pandemic has created opportunities, like increased awareness of food waste and utilizing social capital for solidarity [26].Understanding Indonesia's agricultural history is crucial for post-pandemic regulations.Collaboration is key to addressing the complex food security agenda [2].The objective of this study is to investigate how local food production, encompassing agriculture, played a part in enhancing food security in rural regions of Indonesia during the initial stages of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Methodology 2.1 Eligibility Criteria
The purpose of this study is to consolidate data on how the initial phase of COVID-19 has influenced food security in rural areas of Indonesia, encompassing the dimensions of food security pillars (availability, access, utilization, and stability).The inclusion criteria to select relevant studies were applied: observational studies, qualitative studies and other non-experimental or pragmatic design studies; the studies were written in English and Indonesian language; the population include any age and living in rural communities; full-text article accessible.To select relevant objective review, the period study was limited from 31 December 2019 to 2021.

Search Strategy
This systematic review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) method [25,26].A keyword search was conducted within five databases closely relevant to food security in rural areas: EBSCO Host, ScienceDirect, Taylor & Francis, Wiley, and GARUDA.Figure 1 demonstrates the steps involved in article selection.
Keywords and combinations used included food security, food insecurity, food availability, agriculture, COVID-19, rural, and Indonesia.There are three fundamental logic domains for database research: (1) the study setting in a rural area, (2) indicating the COVID-19 pandemic as the influential factor, and (3) investigating the role of agriculture in securing household food security as the outcome.

Data Extraction
Data were extracted from included studies using a standardised data extraction tool (Table 2) by the author to conform the study objectives, including population setting and food security status description.

Proposed Analysis
The research objective of this study is examining the role of local food production, including agriculture and the farming community, in contributing to food security during the early COVID-19 pandemic in rural areas of Indonesia.The potential bias in this review might include a small or limited sample size that may not provide a comprehensive representation of the situation in rural areas in Indonesia.Selective reporting of outcomes in the reviewed studies, favouring significant or aligned findings, can introduce bias.Positive or significant results regarding the role of local food production in food security may be emphasized, while negative or nonsignificant findings could be excluded.
N/A 793

The prevalence of food security
The available data indicates that the COVID-19 pandemic could have led to a rise in food insecurity in rural Indonesia.Table 2 summarises the primary information on the food security outcomes from studies reporting on food insecurity prevalence in rural areas.

Food access
The results were mixed in a study where rural and urban disparities were examined.Among these studies, only one reported that food-insecure households in rural areas encountered more difficulties accessing and affording food during the pandemic than those residing in urban areas [40].Some studies have reported that communities living in rural areas had better food accessibility than urban areas at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic.Factors such as agricultural suitability and cultural farming practices in rural areas were strong reasons behind the availability of food stocks.Conversely, urban areas experienced obstacles in accessing food due to reduced incomes stemming from job losses in the initial phases of the COVID-19 pandemic [13,27,[32][33][34].Additionally, the lockdown restrictions imposed by the government since the beginning of the pandemic affected traditional market transactions and local community activities to a lesser extent [29].
Nonetheless, other research has indicated that rural communities, especially those engaged in agriculture, encountered challenges in obtaining food because of lockdown authority and rising nonfood expenses, such as transportation costs, education expenses, internet access, and healthcare equipment like masks [29,30,[35][36][37][38].The rising food prices, coupled with the decline in agricultural product sales, are believed to have caused a decrease in purchasing power for food, resulting in poorly impacted food access [30].Respondents with low incomes before the COVID-19 pandemic tended to be more vulnerable to increased household food insecurity in rural areas after the pandemic, as they did not have sufficient funds to purchase adequately nutritious food [29,41,42].

Food availability
The majority of these studies indicated that the COVID-19 pandemic influenced the availability of food in rural areas.Two of the studies compared rural and urban areas to assess disparities in food availability, with urban areas experiencing more significant impacts.[13,40].Rural areas generally rely on agricultural products to meet their food needs, so during the early stages of the pandemic, rural communities were minimally or even unaffected by disruptions in the food supply chain.Two studies found that local food diversification was crucial in meeting daily dietary needs.Local agricultural production relied not solely on rice as a staple food but included other sources such as corn, sago, and cassava [32,39].Carbohydrates constituted most of the food items stored by rural communities, but there was a reported decrease in protein consumption, such as fresh meat and fish [13,27,40].Only one study reported the diversity of foods consumed by rural communities, ranging from carbohydrates, vegetables, and grains to fruits [34].
Agriculture involves human labour throughout the production chain, from planting, nurturing, and harvesting to commodity delivery.Agricultural products are perishable, making the industry reliant on intensive inputs [19].The government's lockdown policies and physical distancing restrictions as preventive measures against the COVID-19 pandemic have made the agricultural sector vulnerable due to their dependence on the market chain [41,42].The pandemic has directly resulted in additional costs on inputs due to various factors such as distribution and transportation barriers, delayed deliveries, limited food stocks, and inflation in pesticide and fertilizer prices.These additional costs translate to reduced agricultural production profits, adversely affecting farmers.In other words, the phenomenon of low income can further widen among farmers.In rural areas where agriculture is the main livelihood source, communities must adapt to drastic lifestyle changes.It impacts lower purchasing power for food and reduces the energy adequacy rate [12,20,43].
The supply chain disruptions where the food supply becomes unstable due to poor harvest might occur because of extreme weather conditions and government-imposed social restrictions during the COVID-19 pandemic.Moreover, food diversification within the food supply chain be limited.Leading to nutritional imbalances in people's diets, with reduced access to the necessary food items for a balanced diet [10,44].Some studies indicate a decline in household diets in terms of quality and quantity due to limited food stocks and price inflation in the market.However, optimizing agricultural land productivity can enhance household food security and economic aspects [45,46].
Food insecurity is caused by low agricultural land productivity.The consequence is suboptimal agricultural product quantity with low product quality.As a result, most agricultural products, especially rice, end up in private storage and are consumed domestically.Several social dynamic factors contribute, from the low quality of resources (both human and technological), poverty, lack of proper food distribution systems, limited land areas, limited land areas, and simple water systems.The government's negligence also plays a big part in addressing poor public welfare [48].Decreased agricultural land productivity can affect the food supply chain, resulting in limited harvest yields.Consequently, the lack of production will affect food availability and increase agricultural product prices.If the food supply is insufficient to meet demand, it can result in hunger or an increase in the level of hunger within the society.Countries experiencing low agricultural land productivity may need to import more food to meet the needs of their population [43,46].

Food utilization and stability
Twelve studies have shown changes in diet quality, food expenditure, food choices, and food quantity during the pandemic's early stages.Due to lockdown and restriction policies, rural communities faced challenges, including limited food stocks, restricted market access, and increased food prices.Three studies reported a rise in fruit and vegetable consumption attributed to self-farming or barter with neighbours in the initial phase of the pandemic [27,34,35].Other studies found that rural communities stockpiled extra food for themselves during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic due to low bargaining power and limited market activities [32,35].Poor knowledge of food processing, particularly among women who often prepare meals, significantly impacted food insecurity in rural areas (food choices and achieving balanced nutrition) [29,47].

Households
Rural areas had higher food stock availability than urban areas due to increased agriculture and livestock-rearing involvement.
Local markets and neighbourhood kiosks remained accessible for essential food items, even during lockdowns.However, food spending decreased in the initial stages of COVID-19.Starchy foods were abundant, but protein-rich animal and dairy products were scarce. [13]

Mostly farmers
Rural areas experience low welfare because of limited economic access to food.Rural-dwelling people face challenges in accessing protein and other types of food. [40]

Rice farmers
More than half of the households experience a decrease in the quantity of their food supply due to declining agricultural product prices. [28] 5.

Rice farmers
The population in the study experienced food insecurity, influenced by decreasing agricultural income, non-agricultural income, food expenditure, and increasing rice (food staple) prices. [38]

Parents
The ratio between residents experiencing food security and food insecurity is 6 to 4. Lockdowns and restrictions have made it more difficult for people to access food. [29] 7. Sago producers 50% of sago producers had a marginal food security status, 30% had low food security, and 30% experienced food deficiency.None of the households were classified as food secure with high-calorie diets. [ Farmers (about 60% of the population).
Households with food expenditures above 60% were more likely to be food secure, whereas those with expenditures equal to or less than 60% tended to be food insecure. [30] 9.

Rice farmers
The COVID-19 pandemic has worsened the already existing issue of insufficient income for small-scale farmers to meet their basic needs.This has resulted in increased food insecurity among low-income families, forcing them to adopt less nutritious diets. [31] 10. Farmer household Almost half (49%) of the respondents reported a minor effect on food storage.Some respondents stockpiled extra food for safety reasons, as transportation issues and market limitations resulted in unsold harvests. [32] 11. Red rice farmers About 68% of households were classified as food-resistant, with the remaining 32% experiencing food insecurity.Food expenditure dropped during COVID-19, as many residents met their food requirements through their farm produce, including fruits and vegetables. [33] 12. Farmer household 82% of respondents were classified as food-resistant farmer households, indicating a diverse and balanced diet.Additionally, all the respondents had high purchasing power. [34] 13. Watermelon farmers' households 46.5% of respondents were classified as food vulnerable.Family size was found to impact the energy adequacy rate.However, farmer households in the village showed a shift in consumption patterns, particularly an increased desire to consume fruit daily. [35] 14. Farmer household Higher proportion of non-food expenses, such as education and transportation costs cause food insecurity among respondents.[36] 15.Farmer household 80% of households experienced food insecurity.The average energy consumption only reaching 44.42% of the recommended energy requirement.[37] The results of 15 studies show two contradictory conditions.Most studies reported food insecurity conditions experienced by rural communities during the early COVID-19 pandemic.The low food security is caused by several factors that contribute to complex problems related to food insecurity and poverty in rural areas.Before the COVID-19 pandemic, rural communities, especially low-income families, were more vulnerable to food insecurity because their incomes were far below the amount needed for essential needs [49].The pandemic has exacerbated the economic conditions of low-income households in rural areas.These factors affect the rural community's ability to purchase sufficient and varied food.Decreased income is one of the negative impacts of movement restrictions and indirect restrictions that hinder farmers and rural communities from selling their agricultural products in the local market [33,43].Limited physical access to the local market will result in decreased food availability and increased prices at the local level.This phenomenon is consistent with studies showing that rural communities relying on agricultural products as their main livelihood are more susceptible to food insecurity than non-farming respondents [30].Increased non-food expenditures during the pandemic, such as fuel, clothing, services, and healthcare, also contribute to changes in food consumption levels, including the food security status of rural communities [34,41].
In contrast to prior conditions, some studies indicate that Indonesian villages did not face food security problems in the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic.It was marked by the ease of access to nutritious food, such as carbohydrates, vegetables, and fruits, for the community.The main factor influencing food security in rural communities is food availability from the agricultural and plantation products the community owns (local production) [1,27,30].Thus, increased food prices or limited food supplies in the market during the early COVID-19 pandemic does not affect these communities.As a result, the negative impact of global pandemic on the disruption of the global food chain did not affect the quantity of diets for certain rural communities [32].Comparative studies on food security between rural and urban areas have stated that most rural areas had better food security (observed from food availability) compared to urban areas during the early period of the pandemic and the implementation of social distancing policies.This phenomenon might happen because rural areas rely on agricultural and livestock harvests for food.In the meantime, urban communities obtain food supplies from markets [50].Cultural factors should also be considered when assessing food security in rural areas.Rural communities have social relationships that differ from those in urban areas, where ancestral heritage values, such as cooperation and family ties, are strongly felt in rural areas [48].The concept of factors influencing the status of food security in rural communities is illustrated in Figure 2. Agricultural product production in rural areas, especially for sustainable consumption, must be carried out as a safety net, particularly in times of unpredictable challenges ahead.However, this approach has limitations for groups of farmers with limited land.Thus, the number of people experiencing food insecurity is unavoidable and has increased during the COVID-19 pandemic.In this uncertain period, policies have important implications for supporting the productivity of small farmers [41,45].Indonesia is adapting its agricultural development strategy to the post-COVID-19 landscape through the 2020-2024 National Medium-Term Development Plan, focusing on the agricultural sector's role in fostering quality economic growth [51].
The policy must support agricultural modernization and government subsidies for the agricultural needs of farmers.Nonetheless, irresponsible actors frequently exploit the execution of this regulation.For example, the estimation of the fertilizer subsidy program in 2021 is to reach 24.3 million tons, but the government's allocated budget only reached 9 million tons of fertilizer.The distribution of subsidy assistance often fails to reach the farmers in need but is controlled by brokers outside the official distribution channels.Many small farmers have not joined farmer communities, making collecting data and distributing agricultural product subsidies difficult [52].These challenges can worsen the food security of remote rural areas if they continue to occur in the future.The government needs to address this issue seriously and establish a regulated, strict, and regular system to achieve the well-being of rural communities and preserve rural areas as the center of agriculture with dynamic economic vitality [2,51].

Conclusion
The review results indicate two different conditions regarding rural communities' household food security status.Certainly, in rural areas, food insecurity arises from multiple factors.These include diminished food access due to heightened non-food expenditures, a decrease in protein intake affecting food availability, insufficient nutritional diets (food utilization), and susceptibility to escalating food prices, which impacts food stability.On the other hand, food security in rural regions is upheld by factors such as high purchasing power, ensuring better food access (from personal farms or engaging in neighborhood exchanges) to maintain food availability, increased consumption of fruits and vegetables for improved food utilization, and the ability to withstand rising food prices, contributing to food stability.
The limitations of this study include the author's constraints in gathering comprehensive data on agriculture and food security in rural communities.There are limited studies specifically addressing this topic, particularly during the early phase of the pandemic, which may impact the quantity and types of studies analyzed.Additionally, some studies had few respondents (n < 30), making it difficult to generalize the findings to the entire rural population.This study specifically focused on the agricultural sector influencing food security levels.In real-case, other social factors such as social conflicts, intercommunity relationships, and regional gross domestic product also play significant roles in influencing the food security status of rural communities.
Most studies have depended on self-reporting, which can be susceptible to bias and underreporting.Additional research is required to assess household food security through more reliable indicators like HDDS (Household Dietary Diversity Score) [60].Strategies involving various social aspects of the community need to be designed by local governments in collaboration with local communities to maximize the resilience of the local food system in rural areas.An effective and efficient food supply distribution system is necessary to always ensure food availability, particularly for vulnerable groups at risk of food insecurity.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.PRISMA flow diagram of search strategy resulting in included studies.

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Summary of the studies

Table 1 .
Geographic distribution of respondent

Table 2 .
General study of the included studies