Study of Corrosion, Wear, and Thermal Analysis of Materials for Internal Combustion Engines and their Compatibility: A Review

Several types of research have been carried out on using alternative biofuel in internal combustion engines to salvage the depletion of fossil fuels. While most of these studies focused on the emission characteristics and control of global warming, little attention has been given to the corrosion, wear, thermal behaviour, and compatibility of the internal combustion engine materials to biodiesel. Thus, this study focused on the various corrosion and wear mechanisms associated with the internal combustion engine components like piston and cylinder heads, as well as the thermal behaviour efficiencies of the engine after interaction with the biodiesel fuels. The review cut across the wear study of internal combustion engine materials in varying fuel environments. Thermal analysis of different materials applied for internal combustion engines for sustainable fuel media. Corrosion study of various materials employed in the application of ICE engines. Also, the study discusses some significant challenges related to the compatibility of ICE with biodiesel and gaseous fuels. The study’s outcome indicates that an adequate fuel blend with nano additives can help improve the combustion process, emission reduction, and thermal efficiency of the internal combustion engine components. Furthermore, practical design in the internal combustion engine components like pistons will help compatibility with the material in the biodiesel blends, thus reducing wear, corrosion, and other failures associated with the internal combustion engine.


Introduction
Internal combustion engines are categories of heat engines wherein the chemical energy of the fuel is converted into a form of shaft work.It is called an internal combustion engine because combustion occurs in a combustion chamber, forming an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit.The internal combustion engine comprises two main components: a stationary cylinder and a mobile piston.The piston is usually put into action by the combustion gases while, in succession, the crankshaft is driven via the gear system, and eventually, the vehicle is driven.The combustion of internal combustion engines could be classified as intermittent or continuous [1].Intermittent combustion engines include sparkignition gasoline and compression-ignition diesel engines.Some of these engines are termed four-stroke 1322 (2024) 012007 IOP Publishing doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1322/1/012007 2 because they involve four processes: intake, compression (actual combustion), power and exhaust strokes [2].Furthermore, the difference between the spark ignition and the compression ignition engine lies in the ignition method caused by the fuel.The mechanism of operation of the spark ignition engine involves blending the energy with air and then moving it into the cylinder during intake.However, in the compression ignition engine, only air is inducted by the engine, followed by compression.The diesel fuel is then injected into the hot air, which has already undergone reduction at a reasonable rate that is capable of causing ignition of the engine [3].Other internal combustion engines that have continuous combustion are gas turbines, jet engines, and some rocket engines.Fossil fuels usually power internal combustion engines; alternative fuels, including biodiesel and bioethanol, now exist for compression ignition engines.A paradigm shift has been made to hydrogen as a fuel for the internal combustion engine [4].As part of the effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions due to the conventional use of natural gas, coal and oil as the global energy source for internal combustion engines, there is a need to look out for the growing number of alternative fuels (Figure 1) for the internal combustion engines, by evaluating their properties and their compatibility with the other blends and the overall efficiency of the internal combustion engines [5].
Figure 1.Flow chart of biodiesel production [5] Furthermore, the global community has been researching substantial changes that will cause sustainability in energy management.In the automotive field, new technologies are being developed to minimise the impact of carbon on the planet.Thus, several nations must comply with the emission policies by ensuring that the level of emissions from the various industrial sectors is measured.To this end, using a computational fluid dynamics method, [6] investigated the lean hydrogen internal combustion engine concept to understand the thermo-fluid performance.The study first considered the conventional gasoline engine and its parameters and the components on the efficiency and performance using a 3-dimensional simulation tool.The essence is to ensure that the parameters and the performance meet with the new hydrogen engine design.Some parameters are injection patterns, turbocharging systems, compression ratio, valves' timing, and the intake ports' creation.Thus, the growing issues about emissions from internal combustion engines necessitate the development of alternative energy sources suitable for sustainable energy consumption and reduced carbon emission [7].
The internal combustion engine industry is associated with numerous challenges due to the pressure of energy conversion as well as the protection of the environment.This new and clean energy concept, hydrogen energy, is expected to substitute conventional fossil fuels due to its excellent combustion and performance.According to [8], Chinese researchers have developed blended hydrogen fuels for several internal combustion engines, including diesel, gasoline, rotary, and alcohol.It was established in the study that rotary engines consist of a small number of components when compared with reciprocating engines.Hence, minimum vibration may be required to operate such a compact structure.However, rotary engines are also characterised by excellent mechanical design, which helps achieve higher densities, power, and speed.Also, rotary engines have low power output under low rates and higher quantities of carbon emissions.Thus, reducing the noxious emission remains a significant challenge in rotary engines.However, the high operating speed of gasoline-powered rotary machines and the lengthy combustion chamber call for blended hydrogen fuel, which has a rate of easy evaporation.Thus, hydrogen's high diffusivity and flame velocity made it a possible alternative fuel for rotary engines.
According to Hou et al. [9], the means of transportation by ship has contributed to the development of the world economy.Due to their cost-effectiveness and excellent thermal efficiency and performance, Low-speed and two-stroke diesel engines have been used in ship transport.However, the emission from exhaust causes marine and environmental pollution due to the sulphur content of the fuel.While the international maritime organisation made relentless efforts to reduce the Sulphur content of the oil to about 0.5 %, it was established that low Sulphur content would equally cause the failure of the cylinder liner of the piston ring of the engine, thus affecting the performance and reliability of the machine.To this end, the cylinder liner sample and the oil were taken for wear and corrosion tests by simulating the marine environment.The corrosion weight loss, electrochemical impedance, composition analysis, and morphology were tested.The overall result indicates that the oil caused the cylinder liner corrosion.Furthermore, the connection between corrosion and wear of the cylinder liner in the engine and the interaction between the loss in volume of corrosion and wear was about 13.9 %.In comparison, the rate of wear on corrosion was about 3.86 %.Hence, the interaction between wear and corrosion is an essential factor that affects the internal combustion engine cylinder lining due to low sulphur content.Figure 2 shows the weight loss of the cylinder liner for the varying days of immersion.The plot showed that the mass loss increase resulted from the immersion time extension.
Similarly, according to Rao et al. [10], it is difficult to understand the corrosion mechanism of the cylinder liner in the marine diesel engine, which is usually caused by low Sulphur content.The study selected the cylinder liner material as a sample for the static and electrochemical test under the working condition of the cylinder liner in the burning fuel.The result showed that the cylinder oil, oxides, and water caused chemical and electrochemical corrosion.Thus, the findings help us understand the corrosion characteristics of cylinder liners in marine environments.The plot showed that the mass loss is relative to the solution and its possible composition.For instance, solution A almost showed no loss in mass.However, solutions B and C showed a mass loss, with solution C giving a positive mass loss of about 45.05 mg.However, solution D gave a damaging mass loss.Additionally, the immersion time played a significant role in the corrosion of the cylinder lining.

Wear Study of Internal Combustion Engine Materials in Varying Fuel Environment
According to Liu et al. [11], stringent policies on fossil fuel depletion led to the development of gaseous alternative fuels.However, there are compatibility issues with using gaseous alternative fuels in internal combustion engines due to the variation in the harsh environment.Thus, power becomes a barrier to safe and reliable operations of the internal combustion engine.Therefore, the study focused on the performance of the gaseous alternative fuel on the essential component in the internal combustion engine.Corrosion issues, wear, and thermal damage were studied.The findings demonstrate that the storage of fuel, feeding and the process of combustion pose a severe threat to the engine's components due to the workings of the machine under the condition of alternative gaseous fuel, which is different from the compliance of the element with the conventional fuels.The study of Gray et al. [12] deployed additive manufacturing technology in producing internal combustion engine components using the reverse engineering method.The authors selected the parameters, modification of models, optimisation of the layout and the support structure of the parts carried out.Also, the authors produced the titanium crankcase and the cylinder head made of aluminium for the internal engine.Furthermore, they scanned for defects like cracks, geometrical features, and porosity deviations.This viability of the components is essential for the efficient performance of the engine under the harsh environment of the fuel.According to Dudás et al. [13], the development of global policies has led to an increase in the challenges of the automotive industries.Thus, there is an increasing demand for efficient and low-emission powertrains and the diversification of use as well as the quality of fuel.All these have a high impact on the thermal, mechanical and tribological behaviour of the cylinder wall of the internal combustion engine.According to the study, the most critical problem associated with the internal combustion engine is the corrosion and wear of the piston ring cylinder wall.The high rate of wear will lead to pressure on the cylinder, an increase in consumption and poor quality of the exhaust.Dos Santos et al. [14] investigated the localised wear in a 4-stroke internal combustion engine cylinder using a dynamometer durability test.The test engine consists of fuel technology known as "Flex-Fuel", which operates under a mixture of gasoline and ethanol in the fuel.Furthermore, a profilometer analysis was done on the engine block sample using the top-dead and bottom-dead centre positions to identify the localised wear behaviour.The result established that localised wear exists in the engine fuelled using gasoline (E25) and the engine fuelled with ethanol (E100].From the result, it was reported that the ethanol fuel caused the highest localised wear at the bottom-dead centre position.Furthermore, the characterisation result showed abrasion due to the carbon residues and the particles from the piston ring.These are the modes of wear formations on the cylinder bore.
In the study of Wittek et al. [15], it was established that the most significant problem with hydrogen fuel in the internal combustion engine lies in the mixture formulation.It was reported that fuel injection directly gives higher power output and efficiency.Despite these advantages of direct hydrogen injection, challenges still need to be improved in their commercialisation.This includes low viscosity and lubricity, thus increasing the frictional wear and reducing the damping of components due to impact forces.In the study of Chinnadurai & Kasianantham [16], butanol was used as a fuel in varying concentrations with gasoline by deploying three throttling positions to replace gasoline in the engines.The butanol performance, fuel economy, and thermal efficiency were analysed with BU20 and BU40 blends.It was observed that there was an increase in the ratio of the butanol, which led to a significant reduction in the emission of both carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide in all the throttling stages, with an 80% reduction in hydrocarbon being observed.Thus, wear at the cylinder head, and the exhaust was absent.Furthermore, there was a significant improvement in the combustion characteristics, as observed in the cylinder pressure and rate of heat released for both Bu20 and Bu40.More so, combustion was stable for the butanol blends.According to Wang et al. [17], the essence of ethanol as a renewable fuel is to help combat emissions and reduce environmental pollution.However, a significant challenge in ethanol production lies in the azeotropic level of water and ethanol, causing high energy consumption during the distillation and dehydration processes.Thus, using hydrous ethanol directly in the internal combustion engine is cheaper and more efficient.It was reported in the study that the delay time of the ignition and the laminar burning velocity, as well as flame instability, were analysed.Thus, blending the hydrous ethanol with gasoline in the spark and compression ignition engines was very efficient, with less corrosion and wear of the internal combustion engine components due to low greenhouse gas emission.Thus, research in the area of evaluating the lifecycle of the internal combustion engines of both the spark and compression ignition engines is significant, and this will rely on the effective blends of fuels that will bring low emission, bringing sustainable development in the economy of nations [18][19].
In the study of Cavalieri et al. [20], it was reported that the increasing wear in the internal combustion engine valves had developed a severe issue for valve designers and manufacturers.This wear occurs in the contact between the valve and the valve seat insert under inadequate lubrication.Furthermore, the study reported that the primary cause of this situation is the reduction in fuel consumption, drop in gaseous pollution, and contact pressure during combustion.Thus, a decrease in lubrication will reduce environmental pollution.However, it can cause severe wear in the contact areas.Furthermore, introducing lead in gasoline helps obtain an efficient and more uniform combustion process.It increases the efficiency of the fuel and power increase as well as a reduction in fuel consumption.However, the lead deposits cause the contact point for the valves and the valve seat insert and can only be dealt with via lubrication to reduce wear between the parts.However, there is a restriction on the use of lead in the gasoline engines of cars and trucks.In the case of diesel engines, the ASTM-D975 is the standard that provides adequate clean diesel fuel that involves a significant amount of sulphur, thus providing lubricity properties.Based on this, the study deployed a computational method to analyse the wear coefficient of the internal combustion engine valves, which combines numerical and experimental methods.The result showed an agreement between the worn-out profiles of the numerical calculations and the experimental results.In the study of Singh et al. [21], the compatibility of binary fuel in the engine can be investigated using short-term bench and long-term endurance tests.It is essential to carry out four-ball tests, highfrequency reciprocating tests and pin-on-disc testers to gain insight into the fuel blends' information to embark on the endurance test.Some of the vital characteristics will is the impact of the lubricity of the fuel, oxidative stability and the dilution of the engine oil.Also, the effect of temperature variation and load on friction and wear will help in the four-ball testing procedure.Going by the fact that the subjection of biodiesel to oxidation will cause lubricity at increased temperature and load, this is very important to study.The dilution effect was investigated during the high-frequency reciprocating rig and the pin-ondisc friction monitor.Thus, the impact of the dilution of engine oil on a pin on the disc, the cam, and the tappet in the combination of the valves is significant.
The result showed that biodiesel and its oil blend would help increase lubricity compared to biodiesel.Thus, there will be a reduction in wear and an increase in the engine's life.Furthermore, the result of the four-ball test showed that using a binary fuel blend in the friction and wear experiment under varying conditions of load and temperatures influences friction and wear.Thus, tribological performance will be affected at high loads and temperatures.Therefore, there will be severe abrasive and adhesive wear.Also, the oxidation of the methyl ester blends at high temperatures and load will cause corrosive wear.However, the oxidised methyl ester will perform better in lubricity for short-term tests.According to Mohanty and Paul [22], the use of biofuel in the internal combustion engine is becoming a daily problem due to the limited storage in fossil fuels as well as the pollution of the environment; in the last decade, several researchers have tried to deploy biofuels in engines.However, the choice of biofuel depends on its availability, location and climatic conditions.Also, their suitability to the machine's performance, combustion, and emission characteristics is vital.While in some cases, biofuel satisfies some of the essential criteria for its choice, the wear and life span of the engine components are never captured.Thus, the importance of the tribological parameters in increasing the engine's life span should be noticed.Garcia et al. [23] investigated the performance, combustion, emission and lubricating characteristics of a spark ignition engine's gasoline and hydrogen gas blend.The study considered varying four engine load conditions of 25, 50, 75 and 100% while the hydrogen gas mas were varied as 3,6 and 9 %.The result indicates that the use of hydrogen gas caused an increase of 3.2 and 4.0 % in the combustion pressure and the rate of heat released.In addition, there was efficient combustion and reduced carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions.However, there was an increase in the debris concentration, like iron and copper, indicating an increase in the wear rate in the engine's internal components.The results show that suitable choice and blending of two biofuels are necessary to overcome the operational problems associated with internal engine components.The typical issues related to calorific values and viscosity can be overcome by adjusting parameters during blending.Using nanoparticles could help improve biodiesel's thermal and performance efficiency [24].According to the study of Sakkampang et al. [25], plant-based fuel is gaining ground due to the reserve and depletion of fossil fuels.Based on this, the study investigated the performance and the emission rates of a diesel engine using different biodiesel mixtures and crude as well as the Yang-Na blend compared with the IOP Publishing doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1322/1/0120076 standard diesel fuel.The experimental method considered the variation in the mixture combinations 0 to 5% while the measured parameters included the wear rate, fuel consumption and exhaust gas emission.The result revealed that the performance of D20 and DD30 is close to that of fossil-based diesel fuels.The emission result showed that both fuels emitted less carbon dioxide than fossil fuel, hence causing a reduction in the wear of the internal engine components.
In the study of Padmanabhan et al. [26], it was reported that research is tending towards a more energy-efficient engine with durability to forestall the limitations of fossil fuel.To achieve this, thermal barrier coatings are now proficient materials gaining ground for engine parts due to their capacity to improve thermal and mechanical efficiency, emission reduction and wear of components.More so, biodiesel produced from renewable energy sources can replace diesel.Thus, the study aimed to increase the diesel engine's efficiency while reducing the wear rate of engine components and emissions.The machine operates under the condition of biodiesel blends incorporated with nano-additives for emission reduction.The engine's efficiency was reported to be 5.4% for that of natives, which was higher than the base fluid with 6.5 % fuel consumption.In addition to this, the nano-additives caused a reduction in the emission of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon, and no wear was observed.In the study of Ge et al. [27], diesel fuel was mixed with anhydrous ethanol and deployed into a diesel engine to improve nitrogen oxides.The study involves several injection methods, and some pilot injection models were used as the main variables.The result showed that the diesel fuel could be mixed adequately with ethanol to about 15 % by volume without phase separation, even at room temperature.Also, several injection methods were found to influence the cylinder pressure and rate of heat release, which was higher than the diesel and ethanol blends.Additionally, it was confirmed that adding ethanol to diesel does not affect the peak cylinder pressure, hence no wear on the cylinder.However, there was a delay in the combustion process.
According to Catapano et al. [28], the increasing energy crises and environmental problems have given room for alternative fuels, both in liquid and gaseous form, because of their potential to reduce fuel consumption and pollution.Thus, ethanol has been confirmed as a promising liquid fuel for spark ignition engines.It has a very high octane rating and anti-knock characteristics, increasing its performance efficiency and reducing wear.It was established in the study that gaseous fuels like methane have an extensive flammable limit as well as anti-knock properties compared to gasoline.It has low carbon dioxide emission; however, the flame propagates slowly, producing a quieter engine output power.Thus, adding fuel like hydrogen will increase combustion and improve engine operation.Therefore, this study conducted an experimental investigation of different fuels on the performance of singlecylinder spark ignition four-stroke engines.The engine was fed with ethanol, gasoline, methane and a blend of hydrogen in methane.Optical measurements were used to analyse the process of combustion.The result of the analyses of the effect of fuel was done using the UV-visible range and 2D-digital imaging measurement.The overall development shows efficient combustion using more ethanol than gasoline.Figure 3 shows the variation in the emission of the various fuel blends.Tasneem et al. [29] investigated the compression ignition engine's performance and the wear analysis using biodiesel and bio-lubricant under condition-based monitoring.The biodiesel was extracted from a biodegradable plant, a non-edible Karanja seed oil, and the performance and wear characteristics were determined.Initially, a benchmark was set for the performance using the diesel and engine oil, after which an endurance test was performed using the biodiesel blend 20BD as fuel and under the condition of the bio-lubricant blend 20BL as a lubricant.The oil samples [lubricant] were collected after 50 to 150 hours in steps of 25 hrs.and analysed for wear debris using atomic spectroscopy.The result indicates a reduction in the wear debris in the oil sample in the case of biodiesel and lubricant.This can be attributed to the excellent lubricity of the oil derived from the plant compared to petroleum-derived oil.Thus, the Karanja biodiesel served as a substitute in the compression ignition engine without any need to adjust parameters.
Figure 4(a-c) shows the variation in iron, aluminium and copper wear debris with hours of engine operation.It was established by Mohanty & Paul [30] that the sources of iron in the compression ignition engine are the piston, cylinder liner, crankshaft, rust, valves, and valve guides.The variation in the oil usage, as illustrated in Figure 4, depicts the run time samples collected after 50 hours.It was discovered that for all the fuel and the lubricant, the iron rate in terms of wear debris increased relative to the oil usage time due to the degradation of the oil.More so, lubricants having a 20BD fuel system have a lower iron content and, thus, lesser wear.This can equally be associated with the excellent lubricity present in the esters in the biodiesel compared to the conventional diesel.Therefore, Table 1 illustrates a summary analysis of the wear study of internal combustion engine materials in varying fuel environments.[11] Gaseous alternative fuels

Internal combustion engine
Wear occurs as a result of compatibility problems Gray et al. [12] cylinder head and crankcase of a small internal combustion engine using metal laser powder bed fusion.

Internal combustion engine
Proper development will help achieve efficient performance for the ICE.

Dudás et al. [13]
Ceramic particles are used to reinforce the coatings

Cylinder surface
Delamination and wear can be prevented via thermal spraying dos Santos et al. [14] Engine cylinder

Ethanol and gasoline
Fuel ethanol caused the wear of a cylinder bore Chinnadurai & Kasianantham, (16] Engine cylinder

Buttanol and gasoline
The combustion process was stable using the butanol blend Wang et al. [17] Internal combustion engine

Gasoline and hydrous ethanol
Reduced wear of the inner combustion engine components Puriceli et al. [18] Medium (Csegment] & electric vehicle internal combustion engine and

Bioethanol, methanol, bionaptha, bio methanol & emethanol
All the blends proved great potential in emission reduction, which implies minimal wear of the engine component Mujtaba et al. [19] Diesel engines Oxygenated biofuels Oxygenated biofuels will enhance sustainability Cavalieri et al. [20] Internal combustion engine valves and valve seat insert

Numerical and experimental test
Wear profiles agree for both numerical calculations and experimental results.Singh et al. [21] Internal combustion engine

Biodiesel and fuel blends
Increase in lubricity leading to a reduction in wear Mohanty and Paul, (22] Internal combustion engine Biofuel Adequate selection of biofuel reduces wear of the engines Garcia et al. [23] Engine components Gasoline and hydrogen gas There was an increase in wear debris Doğan et al. [24] Internal combustion engine

Biodiesel fuel obtained from cottonseed
The addition of nanoparticles will help improve the thermal efficiency and reduce the wear of engine parts.

Diesel fuel and biodiesel from plant
Reduction in emission, which results in a decrease in wear of the internal engine components Padmanabhan et al. [26] Coated Piston of the internal combustion engine Nano-active biodiesel fuel Reduced emission, improvement in efficiency and no wear Ge et al. [27] Internal combustion engine cylinder

Ethanol and diesel blend
Additional ethanol to diesel does not affect the peak cylinder pressure or low emission.Catapano et al. [28] Spark ignition engine

Ethanol, gasoline and methane
There was efficient combustion, which reduced the wear of engine components.Ta.sneem et al. [29] Spark ignition engine

Biodiesel and bio-lubricant
There was a reduction in wear debris due to the bio lubricant derived from the Karanja seed.Mohanty and Paul (30] CNG engines Industrial diesel The engines exhibit different wear patterns; condition-based monitoring is needed to keep the engine running.

Corrosion Study of Internal Combustion Engine Materials in Varying Fuel Environments
Biodiesels are associated with corrosive elements which affect the different parts of the internal combustion engine.Shahabuddin et al. [31] investigated the corrosion performance of automotive component materials like cast iron, copper and stainless steel in varying volume concentrations of Jatropha biodiesel via immersion test.Fuel properties like oxidation stability, total acid content, viscosity, density and water content were analysed by scanning electron microscopy and optical microscopy to check the corroded parts' morphology.It was observed that the highest corrosion using biodiesel was obtained from copper, while the lowest was given by stainless steel.Furthermore, for B20, the corrosion rate in copper and stainless steel was 17 and 14 % higher than in diesel.The corrosion performance of ethanol and gasoline, including their blends, was investigated using a static immersion test in a spark ignition engine.Different concentrations at room temperature were considered using the ethanol blend in the gasoline at different immersion rates.Also, the sample of the metal and the qualities of the fuel were analysed to obtain their corrosion mechanism.Furthermore, the morphological changes, as well as the elemental composition of the metal, were analysed after the corrosion attack.The results indicate that the increase in the ethanol percentage increased the test fuel's corrosiveness to the metal sample.More so, oxygen in ethanol is essential in improving the corrosion attack.In addition to this, the corrosion of metal samples in the E100 was observed to be higher, with significant variations in the surface morphologies after the immersion test.The result showed that ethanol was more corrosive than gasoline against the engine's components.Thus, the piston will be more susceptible to corrosion with regards to the corrosion rate accompanied by the piston rings and valves [32].
According to Zhang et al. [33], ammonia poses severe challenges to the internal combustion engine due to the high ignition energy required, hydrogen emission and slow flame propagation.To avoid this, there is a need for the addition of a combustion aid to have a dual-fuel engine.Thus, adding conventional fuels like gasoline, diesel, and ether will help reduce the reactivity of ammonia and the corrosion rate of the internal engine components.Parast & Azadi [34] also established that aluminium piston is subjected to corrosion fretting fatigue, which can be resolved by heat treating the metal before deploying the components into the internal combustion engine.According to Rajamohan et al. [35], the oxidation stability of Prosopis juliflora biodiesel improves the engine's behaviour and performance; thus, less emission will ensue, and the internal components will not corrode.Similarly, Gülüm [36] reported that bio-derived alternative fuels would help improve engine performance and reduce the emission characteristics of diesel engines under constant operation speed and compression ratios.Thus reducing corrosive effects.Shehzad et al. [37] investigated automotive sample materials like aluminium, copper and stainless steel to understand their various corrosion behaviour using response surface methodology under fat-based biodiesel.From the result, it was reported that the stainless steel showed a minimum corrosion rate at 5.86 % of blend after about 920 hours of immersion.Also, it exhibited a maximum corrosion performance at a blend of 34.14 % after 920 hours of immersion.Furthermore, the optimum values indicated by the response surface methodology for aluminium and copper were observed at a 10% blend for an immersion period of 720 hours.Additionally, the result of the surface microstructure revealed that copper exhibited a higher corrosion behaviour in the chicken fat oil-based biodiesel, followed by aluminium and stainless steel materials.Figure 5 shows the various microstructures of the samples in different percentages of biodiesel.Thus, alternative fuel and biodiesel blend sources will help reduce the corrosion damage in the engine components due to the low emission characteristics associated with the start of the fuels [38][39][40].
Figure 5: SEM image of Copper, Aluminium and Stainless steel in B10 and B34.14 [37] Various alternative fuels can be traceable to their varying qualities in their emission characteristics.Thus, biodiesel and its blends represent promising fuels due to their low Sulphur content.Since automobile engine components like aluminium, copper, and cast iron have more corrosion resistance properties in petrol diesel, they are more corrosive in biodiesel blends.Hence, there is a need to understudy the corrosion properties of biodiesel to estimate the life of automobile engine components.An example of these automobile engine parts is piston rings, which are always in contact with burnt and unburnt fuel [41][42][43][44][45][46].Oni et al. [47] investigated the corrosion behaviour of aluminium, mild steel and copper using an immersion test in preheated schinzochytrium sp.Microalgae biodiesel and the blend using a temperature of 60 °C for 1200 hours.The result showed that the corrosion rate was minimal in the biodiesel blend compared to the pure diesel.Furthermore, the study reported that based on the morphologies, copper was more susceptible to corrosion by biodiesel.Thus, corrosion inhibitors will help prevent engine parts and improve the tribological properties of biofuels to avoid the degradation imposed by the biofuels and the emission [48][49][50].Table 2 summarises the literature on corrosion evaluation of internal combustion engine materials in various fuel compositions from multiple studies reviewed in this section.

Ethanol and gasoline
The ethanol caused more corrosion on the piston, rings, and valves.
Zhang et al. [33] Internal combustion engine components Gasoline, diesel and ether Gasoline, diesel and ether will lower the reactivity of the ammonia Parasite & Azadi, (34] The piston of the internal combustion engine

Several corrosive media
Corrosion fretting fatigue affects the piston Rajamohan et al. [35] Internal combustion engine

Prosopis juliflora biodiesel
Engine performance is improved with less emission, and corrosion is minimised.Gülüm, (36] Internal engine components Bio-derived alternative fuel Improved engine performance with less damage to components Shehzad et al. [37]

Biodiesel blend
Low emission of alternative sources of fuel leads to reduced corrosion Jin et al. [42] Internal combustion engine Methanol, palm oil/palm kernel oil blend Improved thermal efficiency and reduced corrosion damage Ashraful et al. [43] Internal combustion engine

Biodiesel blend
Reduced emission leads to less corrosion wear Baena et al. [44] Auto part sample materials

Methanol gasoline blend
An increase in the percentage of ethanol increased the corrosiveness of the fuel.Bitire Jen, (46] Automobile engine Biodiesel blend with synthesised nanoparticle There was reduced carbon emission Oni et al. [47] Engine parts Biodiesel Copper was more prone to corrosion than aluminium, mild steel Lai et al. [48] Engine

components Fuel blend with additives
There was an improvement in the tribological behaviour, thus reducing the corrosion behaviour.Said et al. [49] Diesel engine Methyl ester diesel blend

Lower carbon emission and efficient consumption Öztürk and Can et al. [50]
Engine components biodiesel There was a decrease in the emissions

Fuel media
To eliminate global warming and climate change and achieve carbon neutrality, there is a need to examine low or zero carbonisation, which is the focus of social-industrial development.For instance, the shipping industry must focus on achieving the dual carbon strategy due to consuming millions of tons of fuel annually, increasing greenhouse gas emissions.While the main source of greenhouse gas emission lies in internal combustion engine exhausts of the engine, proper assessment of materials used in the design of the parts is vital for efficient fuel performance [51][52][53][54].
Several researchers are ongoing to enhance the thermal efficiency of the internal combustion engine and its components parts.For instance, Wilson et al. [55] investigated the fluctuation performance and the emission concept of the high-velocity oxyfuel thermal spray and coated internal combustion engine.This was done by covering the internal headlining with Zirconium Dioxide and aluminium oxide.The performance of the engine was determined using four injection timing under the condition of retardation at 22°CA, 20°CA, 18°CA and 16°CA respectively, using biodiesel.The result showed that the coated combustion engine under the retardation process has about 29.6% brake thermal efficiency with about 0.213 Kg/kW of the specific fuel consumption and exhaust temperature of 203 oC.More so, there was a reduction in the emission of hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide and a reduction in the pressure of the cylinder to about 42.4 bar.Similarly, Fayomi et al. [56] established that coating engine components using thermal barrier coating has significantly improved the thermal and mechanical efficiency of the internal combustion engine under the action of biodiesel.Thus, the study focused on improving the thermal efficiency of the diesel engine by coating the piston using the thermal barrier coating technique.The engine was operated using additives on the diesel blend to reduce emissions.The result revealed an improvement in the engine's efficiency to about 5.4% using the nano additives, which is higher when compared to the base fluid.Also, it was observed that there was a 6.5 % fuel consumption with a reduction in the emission of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon.
According to Anugu et al. [57], the piston is a major part of the engines and represents the major component that moves through a cylindrical tube.Its function is to convert the energy of the evolving gasses into mechanical energy.It is located in the lining of the cylinder or sleeve.Common piston materials include aluminium, cast iron and aluminium alloy.By contrasting Figure 6(a-c), it can be shown that the temperature of steel is 129 ℃, the temperature of CI is 129 ℃, the temperature of aluminium alloy is the highest, and the temperature of CI is minimum is 33.7 ℃. minimum of 47 ℃ and 129 ℃.Developing a robust piston design will help assess the stress and the thermal behaviour, which will help choose the piston's top-notch part [58].A study by Babu et al. [59] established that pine oil represents one of the biofuels with low carbon content normally deployed in spark ignition engines.However, to use the pine oil blend efficiently and achieve excellent engine thermal efficiency, there is a need to redesign the engine components.elements [57].
Thus, the study deployed a micro-arc oxidation approach to apply a thin layer of a thermal barrier coating on the piston crown.The combustion process of the coated and uncoated piston was analysed using the pine oil blend.The results showed that the coated piston engine under the pine oil fuel blend performed excellently in the case of the peak-in cylinder pressure as well as the rate of heat released.Furthermore, the pine oil blend piston engine displayed superior engine characteristics.Also, it was affirmed that the engine fueled with the P20 blend improved the thermal brake efficiency by 1.8 % compared to the non-coated piston fueled with gasoline.
In the study of Thiruselvam et al. [60], insulating materials, nanoparticles, and diesel were used to enhance the compression ignition engine performance to reduce environmental pollution.The combustion chamber components were coated with cylinder liner inclusive and piston using a thickness of 150 and 100 micrometres.Furthermore, plasma spraying of Yttria Stabilized Zirconia and Alumina powder was used.Augmentation of diesel was done using 30 and 60 ppm of cerium Oxide nanoparticles separately.It was observed that using a thermal barrier-coated chamber reduced the fuel consumption by 7.71 % and increased the thermal efficiency of the brake by 1.75 %.In addition to this, the specific fuel consumption was reduced to about 8.25 % and 13.19 %.In comparison, the thermal brake efficiency was increased by 2.43 % and 3.54 % when the thermal barrier-coated engine was used under 30 and 60 ppm cerium oxide mixed diesel fuel.This analysis has led to a summary of various studies as it considers the thermal behaviours of ICE materials when they come in contact with fuels, as presented in Table 3.

Biofuels
Developing materials with adequate components and thermal properties will help reduce greenhouse gas emissions when using biofuels.Wang et al. [52] Internal combustion engine fuel There will be a pollution reduction when there is thermal treatment of parts.

Tian et al. [53]
Engine components Biodiesel Reduced emissions due to efficient fuel consumption Gad et al. [54] Engine components biodiesel The engine has low thermal efficiency due to poor atomisation, high viscosity, and low energy content.

Wilson et al. [55] Zirconium-coated piston headlining biodiesel
There was an improvement in the thermal properties Padmanabhan et al. [56] Thermally coated Piston

Diesel blend with nano additives
There was an improvement in the efficiency of the engine by 5.4% Anugu et al. [57] Aluminium, copper and cast-iron piston biodiesel Redesigning the piston to biodiesel suitability will help in improving thermal efficiency.Nayak & date (58]

Aluminum Sheet metal piston head biodiesel
There was an improvement in the thermal efficiency

Babu et al. [59] Automobile Piston Pine oil
There was an improvement in the brake thermal efficiency Thiruselvam et al. [60]

Diesel with additives
Improved thermal efficiency and reduction in harmful emissions

Challenges Related to the Compatibility of ICE with Biodiesel and Gaseous Fuels
Burning of different fuels by diesel engines usually results in several changes in the chemical composition of the emitted particles, thus causing oxidative reactions, regenerating issues, and overall effect on the service life of the engines.Based on this, Thiruselvam et al. [61] investigated the varying impact of methanol/biodiesel fuel mixtures on the chemical composition and the oxidation reaction of the emitted soot matter.A four-cylinder diesel engine test bed was used, and the soot matter was collected at the exhaust.The test was carried out using varying ratios of methanol.High-performance chromatography and a thermogravimetric analyser were obtained to study the variation in the composition and oxidation characteristics.The result confirmed that the increase in the ratio of methanol mixing led to the rise in the concentration of organic carbon, bicyclic, and tricyclic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon particles.Overall, there were changes in the chemical composition of the particulate combustion using methanol/diesel changes.Thus, these changes could be averted by using coating design and regenerative strategy to improve the particulate of diesel filters.According to [62], there are serious compatibility problems that the biodiesel on the engines can cause.The incompatibility issues usually result in reduced performance and damage to essentials.Components and overall engine failures are most times blamed on the biodiesel.However, research is needed to test biodiesel performance in engines in the laboratory and real-world applications.Thus, clearing the compatibility issues between the biodiesel and the machine will be easy.Inherent characteristics of biodiesel could also affect its compatibility with the engines.[63][64][65][66].
Furthermore, another compatibility issue with biodiesel is the slight reduction in diesel energy, making it more corrosive to engine components than the standard diesel [67].Thus, there is a need to modify the design for its suitability as a fuel [68].Furthermore, regarding the compatibility of biodiesel with the effective operation of the internal combustion engine, several factors could cause this, including the biodiesel effect on engines after treatment, which could result from the blend level used.Thus, some immediate level blends could be susceptible to the precipitation of fuel insoluble and plugging of the filter.More so, prolonged operation using low biodiesel blends could result in some cumulative effects [69][70].According to Karthick et al. [71], the compatibility of biodiesel with fuel delivery metals like aluminium, cast iron, and copper.Brass and mild steel depend on several factors, like biodiesel oxidation, the quantity of biodiesel in biodiesel-biodiesel blends, water content, total acid number, and flow conditions.All these factors affect the corrosion rate.The corrosion rate of copper was observed to increase with high rapeseed concentration.Also, a similar report was given for Bronze and copper are used for palm-based biodiesel-diesel blends for about 2640 hours between 25 to 30 degrees.Minor changes in the biodiesel are enough to cause changes in the combustion process that can cause compatibility issues [71][72].In a report by the US Department of Energy, Tennessee [73], it was reported that there is an existence of compatibility of aluminium and aluminium alloy under the operation of a synthetic blend of ethanol and reference fuel C (50/50 mixture of toluene and isooctane].This was investigated as a function of water content and temperature.Also, pure wrought aluminium and cast iron obtained commercially were reported to be prone to corrosion in dry ethanol.More so, the corrosion rate result increased by temperature and the ethanol content in the fuel mixture [73][74][75][76].Thus, a critical look into biodiesel blending will help improve the engine's performance and reduce the problems associated with the engine components [77][78][79][80][81][82].

Conclusion
Corrosion wear, thermal analyses, and the compatibility of internal combustion engine components with numerous biodiesel/biofuels have been reviewed in this study.It was established in this study that the increasing industrialization in various sectors has led to the demand for alternative fuel sources due to the depletion of fossil fuels.Furthermore, alternative fuel sources from bio-sources need adequate preparation to produce fuel that can fully replace conventional fuel.Thus, modifications need to be carried out in the design of the existing compression and spark ignition engines to have an efficient combustion process and reduce carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen emissions.More so, the highlighted issues associated with the compatibility of the engine components could be resolved by adequately designing the internal combustion engine components.Thus minimizing wear and corrosion problems.From the review study, the following gaps were identified which are: i. Due to their lower cetane number, alcohols like ethanol or n-butanol cause the fuel mixture to have a more extended ignition delay period, which results in an additional ignition delay time.
There is an increase in noise during combustion compared to the operation of neat diesel fuel.
To get clear results, more research is necessary with a more extensive variety of biofuels and higher blending percentages due to the limited test range on both biofuels.ii.
Ethanol and regular butanol exhibit encouraging emission outcomes under actual driving situations, even though biodiesel is now regarded as the major alternative fuel for diesel engines.Therefore, minor percentages (up to 20%) in the fuel blend can be considered additional choices for compression ignition engines in the near future.However, problems with ethanol storage and stability, as well as n-butanol production rate and cost, must first be resolved.Rigorous durability and wear testing on different engines and injection systems are required.

Recommendation
There is a need to adequately study the efficacy of the fuel blend by deploying different additives which can improve the combustion process.Also, adding a suitable oxygenated fuel additive in the fuel and the overall performance of the diesel engine will be very helpful.For further emission reduction, there is a need to deploy advanced combustion techniques like complex after-treatment and high-pressure injection technology.Additionally, the incorporation of modification in the design of the piston for resistance to the peak pressure and excellent thermal efficiency, as well as emission reduction, will help in the overall thermal efficiency of internal combustion engines.In conclusion, there is a need for the life-cycle assessment of biodiesel to obtain the engine's efficiency and the fuel's economy.

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Weight loss of Cylinder liners immersed for different days [9].

Figure 6 :
Figure 6: shows a simulation of the thermal behaviour of (a) steel, (b) cast iron, and (c) aluminium elements [57].

Table 1 .
Summary analysis for the literature review of wear of Internal Combustion Engines Materials in Various Fuel and Biodiesel Environments

Table 2 :
Summary analysis of corrosion study of internal combustion engine materials in varying fuel

Table 3 .
Summary analysis of thermal behaviour of materials applied for internal combustion engines of various fuel media