Adapting to sea level rise: migration decisions and disaster mitigation strategies in small-scale fishing communities

This study explores the adaptation process of small-scale fishing families in Demak, Java, in response to sea level rise and tidal floods. Qualitative research methods are used to investigate the factors influencing families’ decisions to relocate. Findings indicate that families employ home elevation as a short-term adaptation measure, but severe floods eventually lead to the challenging decision of permanent migration. The study highlights the interplay of physical, social, and economic factors in shaping migration decisions. While short-term strategies provide partial relief, migration emerges as a vital long-term resilience strategy. Mitigation efforts involve coastal protection, wetland restoration, land use planning, and climate change adaptation measures. The study emphasises the need for tailored, context-specific strategies and integration of sea level rise considerations into broader climate change mitigation efforts. Overall, understanding migration decisions and implementing targeted disaster mitigation strategies are crucial for enhancing the resilience of coastal communities facing sea level rise.


Introduction
One major worldwide issue endangering coastal towns, particularly small-scale fishing villages, is sea level rise.These towns may experience significant effects from rising sea levels that compromise their infrastructure, way of life, and general well-being.Using the materials provided, this response will give a thorough history of sea level rise and how it affects small-scale fishing communities.The main causes of sea level rise are climate change, particularly the melting of glaciers and ice sheets and seawater expansion by rising temperatures [1].Sea level rise is unpredictable and dependent on several variables, such as greenhouse gas production, increases in global temperature, and ice sheet response [2].It is wellaccepted that sea levels will probably rise soon.By the end of this century, the sea will engulf over 28,000 square kilometres of land or around 37% of the world's beaches will be underwater by 2100 [3,4].
The impacts of rising sea levels on small-scale fishing communities are multifaceted.One of the most immediate and direct impacts is the increased risk of coastal flooding and erosion.As sea levels rise, coastal areas become more vulnerable to storm surges and high tides, increasing flooding and erosion [1].These conditions can lead to the loss of homes, infrastructure, and productive land, and displacement of communities and disruption of their way of life [2].In addition to these direct impacts, sea level rise can indirectly affect small-scale fishing communities.For example, the loss of coastal land and infrastructure can lead to community displacement and the failure to access fishing grounds.It is imperative to recognise that this could lead to the loss of income and livelihood for fishermen and their 1314 (2024) 012013 IOP Publishing doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1314/1/012013 2 families.Furthermore, the increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as storms and cyclones, associated with climate change and sea level rise can further exacerbate the vulnerability of small-scale fishing communities [5].
The resilience and survival of small-scale fishing communities are contingent upon their ability to adapt to sea level rise.Adaptation measures encompass a range of tactics, which can be classified into two broad categories: physical and non-physical approaches.One potential approach to mitigate the impacts of floods and erosion is the implementation of physical measures, which encompass the establishment of coastal defences such dikes and seawalls [1].Currently, approximately 25% of sandy beaches globally have experienced erosion, resulting in an annual erosion rate of 0.5 meters [6].Nevertheless, the implementation of these solutions can incur significant expenses and result in unforeseen repercussions, such as the modification of natural coastal processes and ecosystems [7].Migration can be regarded as an adaptive approach in addressing the phenomenon of rising sea levels.With the escalation of sea levels, coastal populations, particularly those engaged in small-scale fishing, may encounter heightened vulnerabilities and obstacles.Migration can provide these populations with the chance to shift to places that are less susceptible to the adverse effects of sea level rise.The notion of migration as a means of adapting to environmental changes has been previously articulated.The phenomenon of tree species undergoing range shifts in response to climate change suggests that older trees have undergone evolutionary processes that have shaped their sensitivity to environmental circumstances.Nevertheless, the occurrence of swift climate fluctuations, such as the projected exceptional acceleration of sea level rise, has the potential to disturb the intricate relationship between adaptation and migration.Consequently, this disruption may have significant implications for the productivity and long-term survival of several species [8].
In the context of sea level rise, migration can take different forms.As per the research in coastal area, it has been observed that local fishing communities may relocate to regions with improved fishing opportunities or alternative modes of earning a livelihood in order to cope with the consequences of increasing sea levels on conventional fishing practices and guarantee constant access to resources [7,9].However, it is important to note that migration is only sometimes a feasible or desirable option for all communities.Cultural attachment to the land, limited resources, and social networks can influence the decision to migrate or stay in place [9].
The potential for migration as an adaptation strategy is wider than in small-scale fishing communities.For example, the unmitigated sea level rise in the United States is expected to reshape the population distribution, potentially leading to a wave of coastal migrants seeking refuge in landlocked areas [10].This situation highlights the need for comprehensive planning and preparedness to accommodate potential migration flows and ensure the resilience of both coastal and inland communities.Coastal wetland ecosystems, important for supporting biodiversity and providing coastal protection, are also expected to migrate landward in response to rising seas [11].However, the ability of wetlands to migrate can be constrained by factors such as topography and coastal urbanisation, leading to a phenomenon known as the coastal squeeze.In such cases, migration corridors need to be identified to facilitate the landward movement of wetlands and prevent their loss [11].
The primary objective of this study is to investigate the adaptation process of small-scale fishing families in Demak, Java, in response to the impacts of sea level rise and associated tidal floods.The study explores the factors influencing families' decision-making processes regarding relocation through qualitative research methods.This study's significance lies in its contribution to understanding how small-scale fishing communities adapt to sea level rise challenges.By examining the context of Demak, Java, valuable insights can be gained into the dynamics and complexities of adaptation strategies employed by these communities.The study extends to identifying short-term strategies such as adaptation and temporary migration, providing partial relief from immediate sea level rise impacts.However, the effectiveness of these strategies diminishes as flood severity increases.Therefore, migration becomes a crucial long-term approach for bolstering resilience and guaranteeing the viability of small-scale fishing communities in the face of persistent challenges posed by climate change.Furthermore, the research underscores the significance of disaster mitigation endeavors in effectively tackling the consequences of sea level rise.These endeavors encompass a range of strategies, such as the implementation of coastal protection measures, the execution of wetland restoration projects, the formulation of land use planning initiatives, and the implementation of climate change adaption measures.The study illuminates the difficulties encountered by Demak and similar coastal towns, emphasizing the necessity of customized tactics that consider the distinctive attributes and susceptibilities of each coastal region.

Method
Qualitative research provides researchers with a distinct opportunity to get a more profound comprehension of the experiences, viewpoints, and motivations of individuals and families within decision-making processes.Qualitative research enables researchers to investigate cultures that deviate from the mainstream and examine individuals' customs and rituals through the utilization of interviews, observations, and literature reviews [12].Academic researchers have the ability to gather comprehensive data in order to provide valuable insights for the development of customized policies, programs, and interventions.
Data obtained from direct observation can describe activities, behaviours, actions, conversations, interpersonal interactions, and organizational or community processes so that direct observation can capture "informant stories" completely [13].In-depth interviews and semi-structured interviews guide researchers in collecting primary data.Semi-structured interviews were conducted during FGDs with the community and interviewed local government structures such as the heads of Purworejo and Morodemak villages in the Demak district.The semi-structured interviewer has more straightforward guidelines but is flexible in focusing the conversation on issues he deems crucial to the research project to obtain an overview of the interviewee's life world The study was conducted around the north coast of Java Island, Demak Regency.We collected data with a more specific locus in Bonang District, especially Morodemak and Purworejo villages.The two villages are villages whose geographical area is in the northern coastal area of Java Island, and most of the people work as fishermen [14,15].More importantly, Demak Regency is an area always at risk of abrasion due to sea level rise and land subsidence [16].

Adaptation to Sea Level Rise: Home Elevation and its Limitations
Sea level rise is a significant concern for coastal areas, including Demak, Indonesia.The impacts of sea level rise on coastal communities, ecosystems, and infrastructure are well-documented [17].Coastal areas are vulnerable to increased flooding, erosion, and saltwater intrusion [18].The rising sea and land subsidence further escalate coastal flooding and shoreline retreat risks [19].The consequences of sea level rise are particularly severe for low-lying areas like Demak, which is already experiencing major losses in mangrove and aquaculture ecosystems [20].
As we delve into the adaptation strategies employed in Demak, it becomes evident that the challenges posed by sea level rise are met with a multifaceted response.Beyond house elevation, which involves lifting houses to shield them from potential flooding, our investigation in 2021 has brought to light a significant trend within the coastal communities of Demak.Many residents have proactively protected their homes by constructing embankments around their properties, effectively augmenting the ground level.Notably, one informant shared insights into the unique challenges this year due to frequent flooding and emphasized their commitment to addressing this issue through house elevation.Expanding the discussion to the consequences of recurrent flooding, our participants casually described its commonplace occurrence.Inquiries into the flood risk for nearby houses revealed a sense of confidence attributed to specific boundaries they had established for protection.It is intriguing to note that the construction of the houses discussed was not personally overseen by our informant, who received no external assistance, hinting at the potential involvement of other stakeholders, such as his wife.These adaptation strategies, embedded within the context of Demak's vulnerability to sea level rise, underscore the multifaceted approach employed by coastal communities to mitigate the impacts of rising waters.
In specific areas, there is observable evidence of a shift in residency patterns.Residents have consciously abandoned ground floor occupancy and instead relocated to higher floors.This adaptation strategy emphasises the community's proactive approach to reducing potential flood-related risks in response to the growing threat of coastal inundation due to rising sea levels.Similar to our research findings, people use this method in places like Java to handle flooding due to climate change [21] Shifting our focus to the challenge of sinking land in Demak Regency, which experiences subsidence rates ranging from 0.06 to 1.15 meters per year, with a projected extreme of 1.63 meters by 2025 [20], it becomes evident that this factor compounds the complexities of addressing rising sea levels.Problems encountered during house elevation and limited available land further exacerbate the situation.Consequently, exploring alternative and sustainable solutions for ensuring safety in the face of mounting sea levels is imperative.To effectively tackle the issue of rising sea levels, a more comprehensive approach is required, one that extends beyond the sole strategy of elevating homes.While elevating houses can undoubtedly contribute to flood mitigation, it is costly and may only be feasible for some residents, especially those with limited financial resources [22].
Furthermore, in areas where land subsidence is occurring at an alarming rate, the efficacy of house elevation diminishes as the water levels continue to rise [16].Additionally, house elevation needs to provide a holistic solution to the problems of erosion and saltwater intrusion [18].In light of these multifaceted challenges, residents in the affected area consistently contend with tidal floods that occur annually, prompting them to seek financial support from the government for flood protection measures, such as the construction of embankments.This proactive approach stems from the recognition that the losses incurred from tidal floods in a single year can significantly impact transportation infrastructure and residential properties, necessitating frequent road repairs and the annual elevation of houses by an additional meter to mitigate the risks posed by rising sea levels effectively.
To address the pressing challenges posed by rising sea levels in Demak, it is evident that a comprehensive approach to adaptation is imperative.The region faces a myriad of issues, including increased flooding, coastal erosion, saltwater intrusion, and the compounding factor of land subsidence, which exacerbates these risks [3,16,20].In response to these multifaceted challenges, a holistic strategy that combines various protection measures, accommodation strategies, and, in some cases, retreat options must be considered [23,24].
This comprehensive approach encompasses both hard and soft protection measures.Hard protection measures, such as dikes and bulkheads, offer immediate defence against flooding [18,25].Conversely, soft protection measures, including beach nourishment and dune restoration, are vital in absorbing wave energy and reducing erosion along the coastline [24].Additionally, accommodation strategies are essential for adapting to the presence of water and might involve innovative solutions such as floating structures or amphibious architecture [23].
In some cases, where the risks associated with sea level rise become exceptionally high and unsustainable, retreat options must be considered.These options may entail relocating communities to safer areas, providing a long-term solution to the growing threat of coastal inundation [23].By embracing this comprehensive approach to adaptation, Demak can better prepare itself to confront the multifaceted challenges posed by rising sea levels, safeguarding the well-being of its residents and the resilience of its coastal ecosystems and infrastructure.

Migration Decision-Making Process
Environmental, economic, social, and infrastructure considerations are integral to the decision-making process of small-scale fishing families in Demak when responding to the challenges of sea level rise and flood events [15,16,22,26].Initially, these families tend to adopt adaptive strategies as proactive measures before contemplating permanent migration.Additionally, temporary population movements are a common response during flood events as families seek refuge from inundation.
Our research in Demak sheds light on the intricate web of factors that shape these decision-making dynamics.This complex network encompasses socioeconomic status, accessibility to resources, historical experiences with flooding, community cohesion, and the effectiveness of local support systems and infrastructure.Understanding and acknowledging these multifaceted influences are crucial for devising effective policies and interventions to enhance the resilience and well-being of these communities as they navigate the ongoing challenges posed by flooding and rising sea levels.
Regarding initial adaptation strategies, families typically gravitate toward immediate and minimally disruptive measures [23,27,28].These strategies often include elevating homes, constructing embankments, and temporarily relocating essential belongings to higher ground.These initial responses aim to mitigate the immediate risks associated with flood events.Temporary population movements are a common sight during these times as families evacuate to safer areas until their homes become habitable, a practical step taken to ensure the safety and well-being of their members.
Under specific circumstances, families are compelled to confront the challenging decision of permanent migration due to the relentless and escalating threats posed by flooding.Factors contributing to this decision encompass the frequency and severity of flood events, the prolonged impacts of flooding, and the diminishing feasibility of continued residence in flood-prone areas.Other influencing factors include access to livelihood opportunities, education, healthcare, and the potential for an improved quality of life in alternative locations.The interplay of these factors weaves a complex narrative that guides families toward adaptive strategies and, in certain instances, permanent migration.Recognizing and comprehending these intricate influences is paramount in developing effective policies and interventions that fortify the resilience and well-being of these communities in the face of the persistent challenges of flooding and rising sea levels.
The decision-making process regarding migration in the context of sea level rise is greatly influenced by several physical, social, and economic aspects.The presence of natural phenomena such as floods and erosion might lead to the compromised safety of certain areas, hence necessitating the process of migration.The decision of families to either remain in their current location or relocate can be influenced by various social variables, such as the presence of support networks.Additionally, economic concerns, such as the potential impact on livelihoods, can serve as a driving force behind families' pursuit of better prospects in alternative locations.Comprehending the complex interdependencies of these variables is crucial in formulating efficacious approaches to bolster and adjust to migration amidst the backdrop of rising sea levels.

Migration as a Long-Term Strategy for Resilience
Migration has a vital role in bolstering resilience and sustainability against the persistent challenges posed by climate change.It is widely acknowledged as one among the diverse mechanisms by which human populations undergo adaptation in response to alterations in their environment.The examination of migration in the context of anthropogenic climate change frequently employs the notion of vulnerability, encompassing elements like as exposure, system sensitivity, and adaptive capability [29].Migration is frequently regarded as a form of adaptation to the consequences of climate change.It is imperative to fully grasp the complex relationship between vulnerability and climate change in order to effectively address the manifold challenges that climate change poses.
Migration facilitates adaptation and long-term resilience to climate change.Migration ought to facilitate climate adaptation and resilience rather than solely focusing on environmental concerns [30,31].Acquiring pragmatic scientific understanding of migration and mobility can facilitate the identification of conditions that promote migration's resilience and adaptability.Increasing sea levels and flooding due to climate change are impacting a number of small-scale fishing households in the coastal community of Demak.They have expanded their income sources and renovated their homes.During the off-season, Mr. A, a fisherman, purchased a modest grocery store to supplement his income.This modification has increased the economic vitality of the community and bolstered the climate resilience of his family.Migration has the potential to facilitate economic development, elevate standard of living, and support the reduction of poverty-all of which are elements that can aid in the achievement IOP Publishing doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1314/1/0120136 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [30].It can additionally bolster social resilience through its provision of support to communities and individuals in their recuperation from the adverse effects and disturbances caused by climate change.
As an adaptation strategy, migration can be both advantageous and difficult for populations residing in climate-vulnerable regions.At the location of our investigation, a number of families considered migration as a means of adaptation.The efficacy of this strategy, however, varied considerably.While one family was able to effectively relocate to a nearby urban area and discover improved economic opportunities, another family encountered significant obstacles in securing consistent employment and suitable housing at their final destination.This underscores the significance of taking into account specific destination factors and individual circumstances when assessing the efficacy of migration as a means of adaptation.
Migration can potentially offer individuals and communities the chance to enhance their livelihoods and avail themselves of resources.However, as an adaptation strategy, its effectiveness may be limited, particularly for those who have limited other options.The efficacy of migration as a technique for adaptation is contingent upon a multitude of aspects, encompassing the accessibility of resources, social networks, and support structures within the designated regions [32].To ascertain the efficacy of migration as an adaptation strategy, it is crucial to thoroughly evaluate the unique context and conditions of each migration scenario [28].

Disaster Mitigation Efforts
The significance of disaster mitigation efforts becomes particularly pronounced within environmental migration.Sea level rise and its far-reaching repercussions encompassing coastal flooding and erosion can potentially trigger the displacement of populations residing in low-lying coastal regions [33].This displacement unfolds diverse ramifications, including the erosion of livelihood opportunities, heightened susceptibility to exploitation, and the imperative to seek safer havens.In a coastal community in Demak, residents have come together to mitigate the impacts of sea level rise and coastal erosion.They have constructed embankments and mangrove restoration projects through collaborative efforts to protect their homes and livelihoods.This cooperative approach has not only reduced the vulnerability of the community to environmental challenges but has also strengthened social bonds and solidarity.
The displacement resulting from the convergence of sea level rise and other climate-induced disasters underscores the intricate interplay between environmental factors and their reverberations on human communities.Understanding the prospective destinations of these displaced populations becomes pivotal to effectively addressing the multifaceted challenges posed by environmental migration.However, a research void persists in illuminating the trajectories of potentially displaced individuals due to sea level rise [33].
Our research found that a family was forced to migrate due to worsening flooding and land degradation.They relocated to an inland area but faced numerous challenges adapting to their new environment.The lack of job opportunities and social support made their displacement particularly challenging.This case highlights the complexities and difficulties faced by climate-induced migrants in Demak.This displacement induced by sea level rise is poised to imprint profound imprints on the future demographic landscape, particularly in coastal regions.The unmitigated trajectory of sea level rise can reshape the population distribution within the United States, with coastal migrants potentially gravitating toward inland regions, which might be ill-equipped to accommodate this influx [1].This underscores the exigency of proactive measures that attenuate the impact of sea level rise and fortify the resilience of coastal communities.In the interplay of disasters and climate change, migration and displacement assume a transformative role.The convergence of extreme weather events, sea level rise, and land degradation driven by climate change collectively propels population displacement.The nexus of these factors and their sway over migration and displacement magnifies as a growing concern, necessitating further scholarly inquiry into the intricate interrelationship linking disasters, climate change, and human mobility.The repercussions of displacement cast a wide net over both individuals and communities.Displaced populations frequently grapple with the erosion of livelihoods, heightened vulnerability to exploitation, and the challenge of adapting to unfamiliar environments.Moreover, the displacement from climate change and disasters can wield profound repercussions on public health, particularly for susceptible segments like children.The mental well-being of displaced populations also demands careful consideration, given the potential for trauma and stress arising from their uprooted circumstances.
Efforts aimed at addressing the intricacies of environmental migration necessitate a multidimensional approach.This encompasses formulating policies and strategies to temper the impact of disasters and climate change on migration and displacement.A comprehensive outlook further calls for acknowledging the social, economic, and cultural ripples displacement, propelling the development of interventions fostering the well-being and resilience of displaced.Additionally, the existing void in climate-induced migration literature calls for comprehensive research endeavours that bridge the gaps and unravel the ramifications and outcomes of displacement.

Conclusion
The present study examines the intricate adaptation process undertaken by small-scale fishing households in Demak, Java, as they confront the interconnected challenges of escalating sea levels and tidal floods.Qualitative research methodologies are employed to investigate the multifaceted factors that shape families' relocation decisions.The results of our study shed light on a multifaceted landscape, encompassing the following components: Initially, households endeavour to raise the elevation of their dwellings as a temporary measure to mitigate the impact of floods.Nevertheless, as the severity of flooding escalates, the arduous choice of permanent relocation becomes a pressing consideration.The study provides valuable insights into the intricate interplay of environmental, social, and economic factors that contribute to determining migration patterns.While temporary measures like raising dwellings can offer temporary respite, the concept of relocation is gaining recognition as the most efficient and enduring approach for attaining resilience in the long run.The process of adapting to climate change necessitates the utilization of several mitigation tactics, including the establishment of coastal fortifications, restoration of wetlands, meticulous land use planning, and integration of measures for climate change adaptation.This study emphasizes the importance of implementing customized strategies that are tailored to the unique circumstances encountered by each town in addressing the escalating sea level.Equally imperative is the integration of considerations on the escalating sea levels within broader endeavours aimed at mitigating the impacts of climate change.The purpose of this paper is to advocate for a proactive understanding of the causes of migration and the intentional adoption of disaster mitigation strategies that are tailored to address these causes.This initiative establishes the foundation for coastal communities to enhance their resilience in response to the challenges of escalating sea levels and the extensive consequences associated with such transformations.