The explosion of pests and diseases due to climate change

Climate change has been felt over the last few decades in Indonesia, especially in Aceh. Uncertain climatic conditions can affect crop production and food distribution. Insect pests and plant pathogens respond differently to various causes of climate change. An increase in temperature causes changes in the behavior of pests and diseases in terms of their ability to attack. This review discusses the impact of rising temperatures and CO2 levels in the atmosphere on the ability to attack insect pests and pathogens on crops. Global climate warming is expected to trigger an expansion of pests and disease geographic distribution from lowland to highland, increase their survival, and increase the number of new host plants. The survey carried out in Central Aceh on an Arabica coffee plantation showed that leaf spots caused by Hemiliea vastatrix can attack a coffee plantation at an altitude of 1.400 meters, while the same case is also found at the same altitude where coffee berry borer pest (Hyphothenemus hampei) and coffee leaf miner (Leucoptera coffeella) can attack arabica coffee plantation. A comprehensive assessment of the impact of climate change on pests and plant diseases needs to be carried out to get an integrated pest management strategy.


Introduction
In recent years, the growing threat of pests has become an important consequence of climate change.As global temperatures rise and weather patterns become increasingly unpredictable, ecosystems undergo changes that create new opportunities for pests and diseases to thrive.This phenomenon seriously threatens agricultural systems, biodiversity and human health as it is often considered an "outbreak" of pests and diseases due to climate change.To address this challenge, strategies have been put in place and implemented that not only reduce the impact of climate change but also give us greater capacity to manage and control pest outbreaks.This comprehensive approach includes a variety of innovative techniques, sustainable practices, and collaborative initiatives aimed at protecting both agricultural productivity and the delicate balance of our ecosystem.In this exploration, we delve deeper into a diversity of efforts being undertaken to combat the growing threats posed by the intersection of climate change and plague, highlighting multifaceted strategies that promise a more harmonious and resilient coexistence.
A pest can be defined as anything that humans consider a threat to themselves, their crops, livestock, or property.The definition of a pest should include nematodes, insects, weeds, mollusks, bacteria, fungi, phytoplasmas, viruses, and viroids.Factors thought to influence plant disease are often conceptualized in terms of the disease triangle (Figure 1).In this concept, all three factorshost, pathogen, and IOP Publishing doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1297/1/012072 2 environmentinteract to influence the likelihood of a disease outbreak.Likewise, the environment can also have a direct influence on insects and their interactions with their host.
The most significant factor in insect development is temperature.By analyzing the amount of heat required, it is possible to determine the time needed for an insect to complete a developmental stage or process.This physiological time is calculated from the summation or accumulation of time by temperature and is expressed as day degrees [1].Calculating the physiological time requires knowing the threshold temperature of the insect.It is commonly believed that physiological time remains constant at every stage, but temperature fluctuations, insect diets, and the host plant's microbiome mat also affect it [2]; [3].It is challenging to determine the onset of an event when temperature is used to predict periods.This can be problematic, at the end of diapause and can therefore introduce errors in the calculation of degrees per day [4].Virus transmission can be influenced by the motility of the vector, which is influenced by temperature and the interaction between the virus and its vector (nonpersistent or persistent) [5].One of the most significant factors that affect disease progression is temperature.The ideal temperature for disease development is typically a reflection of the ideal heat stage for both the host and pathogen.In certain situations, the disease can be accelerated by stressing the plant.For example, the growth of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.lini and the development of flax wilt (caused by this pathogen) at the optimal temperature 24 o C. Different hosts may have their own ideal time for disease development [6].
Efforts to overcome the explosion of pests and diseases due to climate change encompass a range of innovative methodologies and sustainable practices.For instance, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) offers a holistic framework that integrates various pest control tactics while minimizing environmental impact [7].Thus, each IPM program is formulated according to the pest prevention objectives and eradication requirements of each case.The implementation of IPM programs with four levels is a crucial element.Control and regulate the pests, monitor their progress, and establish action thresholds for prevention.Climate-resilient crop varieties developed through advanced breeding techniques provide an essential defense against evolving pests and changing climatic conditions [8].Furthermore, agroecological practices emphasize biodiversity, soil health, and ecosystem stability to mitigate the vulnerabilities that climate change exacerbates [9].

The influence of climate on the explosion of pests and plant diseases
The influence of climate on the explosion of pests and plant diseases is a significant and complex phenomenon driven by various climatic factors.Climate change can, directly and indirectly, impact the prevalence, distribution, and intensity of pests and diseases, contributing to outbreaks in agricultural and natural systems.Here's an overview of how climate influenced this explosion:

Temperature and Phenology
Warmer temperatures can accelerate the development and reproduction of pests and disease vectors, increasing populations and faster life cycles [10].Climate change caused by the increase in the concentration of CO 2 in the atmosphere causes a rise in global temperature.In insects, temperature affects food consumption, rate of development, distribution, population size, plague and migration, larva emergence, and number of generations/year.Insects can respond to rising temperatures in several ways: adapt, migrate, or become extinct [11].
At a lower temperature, caused population and the percentage of chocolate fruit borer attacks are higher than at lower temperatures [12].In Karawang, Subang, and Indramayu, the minimum temperature or night temperature is 1-2 degrees higher can trigger a WBC outbreak [11].CO2 in the atmosphere will increase rice plants affected by blast and leaf blight [13].Climate change creates new ecological niches that provide opportunities for insect pests to establish and spread in new geographic regions and shift from one region to another [14].

Precipitation Patterns
Altered precipitation patterns can create conditions conducive to the growth of pathogens and vectors, affecting disease spread and plant susceptibility [15].The explosions of locust pests are related to two main factors, biological factors, and environmental factors.Low rainfall conditions in the rainy season and then followed by high rainfall are some of the most important factors in triggering the explosion of the locust pest in Lampung [16].

Humidity and moisture
Increased humidity favors the growth and multiplication of pathogens, leading to a higher incidence of disease.The increasing incidence of extreme La Nina climate higher than average rainfall during the dry season will cause high humidity and activate the biological cycle of brown planthoppers (Nilaparvata lugens) to develop in high populations [11].Humidity plays a significant role in the development and spread of plant diseases, particularly fungal and bacterial diseases.High humidity creates a favorable environment for many pathogens, especially fungi, to thrive and reproduce.Fungal spores require moisture to germinate and infect plants [17].Humidity promotes the germination of pathogen spores, leading to increased infection rates [10].Humidity can create conditions conducive to the explosion of plant diseases by promoting spore germination, facilitating pathogen growth, and extending leaf wetness periods.

Extreme Events
Climate-related extreme events like storms and floods can facilitate the spread of pests and diseases by disrupting ecosystems and promoting their movement (Figure 2).Flooding caused by heavy rainfall can lead to increased humidity and prolonged leaf wetness [18].Extreme events can create conditions that weaken plants, disrupt ecosystems, facilitate pathogen and vector movement, and alter microbial communities.All of which contribute to the potential explosion of pests and diseases in both agricultural and natural environments.

Vector-Borne Diseases
Climate change can affect the distribution of disease vectors, influencing the transmission of vectorborne diseases to plants.[19]

Anticipation of pest and disease explosions
Strategies for anticipation of climate change about the development of pests and diseases in plants require several appropriate steps.A comprehensive assessment of the impact of climate change on pests and plant diseases needs to be carried out to determine the right steps for the government and farmers.

Quarantine Procedure
Physical and commercial barriers should be placed to keep one area free from pests, allowing entry and spread.The introduction of pests in new environments often results in increased and more widespread damage, these changes arise partly due to their elution against the biological limitations in their area of origin and their lack of exposure to pests, which makes them genetically vulnerable.A pest control program should include the elimination of unwanted pests or diseases.In addition to reducing the economic burden on producers, the absence of harmful pests also provides more opportunities for infested products to be eradicated.Despite being an effective approach, quarantine does not eliminate the problem of pests entering and spreading through heavy traffic [20].

Technical cultural control of pests and disease.
The establishment, reproduction, and spread of pests are restricted by cultural measures that limit their survival.The selection of the right variety of trees in a specific location will promote health and minimize potential pests and diseases.Crop rotation, mulching to reduce stress, sun drying techniques for insect repelling and sexual attraction (both male and female), plantation sanitation practices such as rotary planting, reduced water usage, root disease control through irrigation methods, susceptible cultivar selection, or replacing resistant varieties with susceptible ones, a less sensitive culture.The rice being produced by IRRI and Balitpa Sukamandi is becoming resistant to major pests and diseases like blast disease, bacterial leaf blight, sheath cleft liposomes, and tungrovirus.The deployment of resistant varieties in major rice-producing areas in Asia, such as NSIC Rc142 and NIC Rh154 in the Philippines, has resulted in yield losses of 1% less than usual due to bacterial leaf blight.The resistance genes of Balitpa Sukamandi have been identified in other varieties, including Bph3, Bphaphalie, and PTB33 (Bphepie), but it still exhibits strong resistance in endemic brown planthopper populations [21].

Implementation of integrated pest management.
A combination of traditional methods is utilized in IPM, a successful method of pest control that is also environmentally friendly.Integrated pest management involves the use of multiple assessments, decisions, and controls to manage pests without a single approach.These measures include: UN-FAO collaborated with the Indonesian government to launch the special program on food security and IPM implementation.The success story of IPM in eradicating the brown planthopper infestation in Indonesia is highly regarded.The use of pesticides is no longer effective for insects, natural predators have been eradicated.High-yielding Indonesian rice cannot provide any resistance to attack due to its limited genetic base.The use of pesticides, sprayed up to 50 times per season, almost caused crop damage in the mid-1980s as resistant insects were not affected.

Biological control.
Even while many individuals still use synthetic chemical pesticides for pest control, there are more reasons to think about alternatives.Other pests that were not previously pests can increase to densities that cause damage because the natural controls that kept their population at low densities in the past are no longer present or abundant enough to maintain control.This is because applying pesticides frequently results in the death of all of the natural enemies.The other consequence of heavy pesticide use is the potential for the insect to become resistant to the chemicals.Additionally, pesticides can have acute impacts on people, such as minor skin or eye damage.Many lists of natural enemy qualities have been linked to effective classical biological control.Effective parasitoids and predators frequently exhibit three traits: (1) good searching ability, (2) strong host specificity resulting in a density-dependent association with the host, and (3) high fecundity [22].
3.5.Developing drought early warning system.Regional drought early warning systems can be developed and put into place to respond to unique geographic and hydrologic conditions as well as the value-added information demands of local stakeholders, especially those in the agriculture industry.Modeling the correlation between climatic factors and pest and disease outbreaks, as demonstrated by the GEARN planthopper migration simulation model [23].

Conclusions
The uncertain climate change has a direct impact on agriculture production.Most farmers are not producing rice and maize due to the prolonged dry season in 2023.While in the other hand, in the other Province, heavy rain accompanied by storms causes flooding, damages crops, and reduces crop yield.Anomaly climate is currently affecting various sectors including agriculture, where one of the impacts is the increase in pest populations.Rising temperatures and increasing CO2 levels induced faster pest development, making plants stressed, weak, and succulent.Changes in geographic distribution of pest and disease populations.Increasing the temperature of the air will cause the insects/pests to be more abundant, steps you can take to prevent harmful organisms from entering or spreading around you.