Addressing Indonesia’s biggest road safety challenge: Reducing motorcycle deaths

Motorcyclists are the largest contributor to road fatalities in Indonesia, with the main causal factors found to be speeding and not wearing a helmet. One of the most efficient ways to reduce road deaths in Indonesia would be to reduce speeding behaviour and increase helmet wearing by strengthening speed and helmet wearing enforcement combined with education. Stronger enforcement combined with education have been shown to be highly effective in reducing fatalities in other countries. This study assesses the benefits of stronger enforcement on speed limit and helmet wearing. It also explores what are the most effective strategies to strengthen enforcement using fixed and mobile speed cameras, point to point speed cameras and AI technology that can be used to enforce helmet wearing rates. The paper concludes with an estimation of the potential benefits if such stronger enforcement were implemented in Indonesia.


Introduction
Road crashes are the primary cause of fatalities in Indonesia for children and young adults (1).Among all road users in Indonesia, motorcycles account for the largest contributor to fatalities at 81%, followed by cars at 8% (1).Moreover, national crash data (1) shows that 68.74% of motorcyclists killed in fatal road crashes did not have a motorcycle license.
National data regarding contributing factors in road crashes for Indonesia as a whole is not available whereas there is data available for Bandung City (2).The primary causal factor for road crashes involving injury or death in Bandung City was found to be speeding, accounting for around 25% of all crashes (2).Neglecting to give way to pedestrians was also a major contributor accounting for 20% of fatalities (2).A 2019 study by Kusumawati et al. showed that 40% of commuting motorcycles exceeded the speed limit on national six-lane two-way divided roads in urban areas.The proportion of speeding motorcycles between the hours of midnight and 6 am reached 63.21% (3).Additionally, Ayuningtyas et al. found that 56-71% motorcyclists had been speeding on urban roads, whereas only 8-18% had been speeding on rural roads (4).Considering that speeding is a major causal factor of crashes and motorcyclist fatalities, any reductions in speeding behaviour would likely reduce fatalities not only in Bandung City but in Indonesia generally.In terms of reducing speeding behaviour and ensuring riders travel within speed limits, it is also important to consider appropriate speed limits as a fundamental aspect of enhancing road safety.Speed limits need to be carefully chosen to balance the need for mobility function and the human body's tolerance to kinetic energy in the event of a crash, taking into account road user interactions, potential crash types, road infrastructure, and other controlling aspects, e.g., weather.However, there has been some community debate regarding speed limits and how setting a higher speed limit can potentially yield increased societal financial benefits through reduced travel time.On the other hand, it is important to note that setting higher speed limits increases the risk of road crashes, leading to increased fatalities and serious injuries (5,6).Therefore, setting acceptable 'safe' speed limit values and ensuring they are complied with, play a vital role in reducing fatalities among motorcyclists and improving overall road safety in Indonesia.
Personal protection for motorcyclists also appears to be another aspect of road safety contributing to Indonesia's road casualties.Interestingly, the issuing of speeding fines for motorcyclists who exceed the speed limit are closely linked to the use of helmets, which are designed to enhance the safety of riders and pillions.The effectiveness of helmets as a safety measure has been proven and well-establish (7).Correct helmet usage has been shown to reduce the risk of deaths by 42% and head injuries by 69% (8).In Indonesia, there is a law mandating the use of helmets for motorcyclists (9).However, the data indicates that the wearing rates of helmets among riders in Indonesia are around 71% (10).Thus, encouraging and enforcing the correct use of helmets can also play a significant role in reducing injuries and fatalities among motorcyclists in Indonesia.
Considering that motorcyclist crashes are a primary contributor to traffic fatalities in Indonesia, where speeding, not wearing a helmet and unlicensed riding appear to be major causal factors, addressing these issues may have significant injury/fatality reduction potential.Additionally, Indonesia's road safety plan has targets to ensure that half of all drivers and riders comply with speed limits, and all riders wear helmets that meet the Indonesian helmet standard by 2030 (1).The strategy includes specific campaigns targeting seven main risk factors, including helmet usage and speeding among them.The implementation of speed limit enforcement measures, along with continuous monitoring and evaluation, is also part of the strategy to enhance road safety (1).
Regarding travel speed, Indonesia's road safety strategy includes the development of guidelines for safe speed limits, enforcement measures to ensure compliance with speed limits, continuous monitoring of speed limits, and a speed control program for national roads and toll roads.Nevertheless, specific details regarding how these guidelines will be developed or what policies will be implemented, has not yet been provided.
One of the most effective ways to reduce speeding behaviour and increase helmet wearing rates is through stronger enforcement (11,12).Studies have shown that riders indicated that the fear of being caught was the most significant factor influencing decision-making regarding driving speed and travelling within the speed limit (13).Moreover, evidence from several countries worldwide supports the notion that speeding behaviour significantly decreases and helmet usage increases when strong enforcement measures are in place.The effectiveness of enforcement is further enhanced when combined with education awareness programs (14).An additional likely benefit of stronger enforcement would be the reduction of unlicenced riders.
The primary objective of this paper is to explore previous research from the general literature, assessing the benefits and effectiveness of stronger enforcement on speed limits and helmet wearing compliance, particularly for fatality and serious injury reductions.Moreover, this study will assess the benefits of reducing speed limits and explore possible enforcement strategies for promoting compliance with speed limits and helmet usage, based on best practice from other countries.
While it should be noted that road fatalities are influenced by numerous factors, this study will specifically concentrate on the most common causal factor for road fatalities, which is speed, particularly concerning those crashes involving motorcycles, as they contribute significantly to Indonesia's road deaths.The study will also consider helmet wearing as a critical safety measure to mitigate the impact of fatal road crashes for motorcyclists.

Methodology
The methodology used for this study was to explore the current research literature, specifically those focussing on Low-and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs), regarding motorcycle usage and speeding and helmet usage, to determine what evidence-based interventions exist to reduce fatalities and serious injuries for this user group.Those benefits were then applied to Indonesian casualty data and information concerning speeding and helmet usage to estimate the potential gains regarding casualty reductions.
Regarding the causal factor of crashes, national data is unavailable.However, Bandung City causal data is available and thus is used here as a proxy for the national statistics to determine potential casualty reduction benefits.

Benefits of Reducing Speed Limits and Stronger Enforcement
The available evidence from systematic reviews and meta-analyses indicates that legislation and enforcement interventions have demonstrated significant impact, particularly in Low-and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs) (11).These findings suggest that implementing and enforcing road safety laws, including enforcing speed limits and a helmet wearing law in LMICs can lead to significant improvements in road safety outcomes.

Safe System Approach and Safe Speed Limits
Maintaining safe speeds underpins the Safe System Approach and is crucial in preventing crashes that can lead to fatal and serious injuries (FSIs).Setting safe speed limits and enforcing road rules are one of the key targets to achieving FSI reductions.Numerous studies have shown that lowering speed limits reduces the risk of FSIs, and conversely higher speed limits result in higher risk of FSIs (5,6).However, determining the optimal speed limit to balance safe speed and mobility remains a challenging question.
It is often impractical to set the speed limit as low as possible while considering the need for efficient mobility.Nevertheless, several studies have been conducted to find the optimal safe speeds for speed limits where the risk of a fatality occurring is set at 10%.One of the most widely cited publication is the Wramborg proposal for safe speeds presented in Warsaw at a road safety conference held in 2005 (Figure 1).He proposed that the risk of a fatality involving a car collision should not exceed 10%.For head on collisions the impact speed should not exceed 70 km/h, whereas for intersections where a side impact may occur, the impact speed should not exceed 50 km/h.Regarding vulnerable road users such as pedestrians and cyclists, Wramborg suggested that motor vehicles should not be allowed to exceed 30 km/h on streets where they might be at risk (15).No supportive evidence or validating data was provided by Wramborg for these speed limits.
Interestingly, a 2019 study by Hussain et al. using a systematic review and meta-analysis approach to synthesise data from all prior relevant studies, also supports setting speed limits of 30-40 km/h for high pedestrian active areas (16) for a 10% risk of a fatality occurring at that speed (Figure 2).These recommended speed limits are commonly adopted by best practice countries that have achieved the lowest road fatality rates internationally.
The study by Hussain et al. ( 16) is so far the only extensive systematic review and meta-analysis carried out to determine the impact speed versus fatality risk curves for this road user group.It appears that no systematic reviews and meta-analyses have been carried out to determine whether the impact speed versus fatality risk curves for head-on collisions, frontal collisions and/or side impact crashes have been carried out.

Effect of Reducing Travel Speed on Fatality and Serious Injury Risk
Setting a safe speed limit for maximum travel speed is a critical factor in determining optimal speed limits that takes into account the human body's tolerance to impact speed and the need for mobility.When speeding occurs and exceeds a certain safe speed limit, the impact of a crash on the human body becomes significantly greater as a result of the increased kinetic energy the vehicle possess prior to the crash.This relationship between increasing or decreasing travel speed and the resulting change in casualties is illustrated in the power model shown in Figure 3, as demonstrated in Nilsson's 2004 study (17).Evidence supporting Nilsson's power model was confirmed by Elvik et al. ( 18) using a systematic review and meta-analysis method combining all relevant previous evidence-based studies.It illustrates how even a slight change in speed can lead to a significant increase in deaths.In fact, speed limit reduction is one of the single most economically efficient countermeasures available to regulators for reducing FSIs occurring in the road system as opposed to having to implement costly infrastructure treatments (13).
There are a number of anecdotal real-world examples that also demonstrate the relationship between travel speed change and subsequent percentage change in casualties even when the speed limit is set at high values.For instance, in 2011 Kansas, a state within the United States, the speed limit was increased on the selected set of freeway segments from 70 mph (≈112 km/h) to 75 mph (≈120 km/h) (a 7% increase).Through before and after studies, Shirazinejad et al. found total crashes increased 27% and FSIs increased 35% after the speed limit was changed (19).This and other studies have found that for small speed changes, the percentage change in deaths is typically about four times the percentage change in speed (17,18,20).
Another example is a study in South Australia that examined the impact of a speed limit change from 110 km/h to 100 km/h on rural roads.It resulted in a 25.56% reduction of casualties and 27.40% fall in casualty crashes (21).Yet another study by Hoareau et al. in 2022 in South-east Queensland found an 88% reduction in fatal crashes and 23% reduction in serious injury crashes when the speed limit in urban environments where reduced from 60 km/h to 50 km/h (22).

Indonesia's Speed Limits Compared to Other Countries
Figure 4 shows a graph of the road fatalities per 100,000 inhabitants in 2020 for the thirty-four International Transport Forum (ITF) member countries.Among the ITF member countries, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Switzerland are countries with the lowest fatality rates, while Colombia, United States, Chile, and Argentina are countries with the highest fatality rates (23).In comparison, Indonesia's fatality rate of 8.78 per 100,000 would be considered very high and similar to Argentina's rate, i.e., it would be ranked in the bottom 10% worst performing ITF countries.Table 1 shows what the speed limits have been set by in those countries with the lowest fatality rate per 100,000 population and for those with the highest fatality rates.The speed limits between these countries do not vary significantly.Indonesia's speed limits appear to be similar to those countries with the lowest fatality rates.However, the fatality rates in Indonesia are more comparable to countries with the highest fatality rates.What this indicates is that the speed limits set in Indonesia would not appear to have much influence regarding fatality rates.Instead, the primary contributing factor would appear to be speeding behaviour of itself along with other contributing factors such as helmet wearing, and unlicenced riding.

Benefits of Stronger Enforcement Regarding Speed Limits in Indonesia and Other Countries
Enforcement is crucial in ensuring the effectiveness of road safety laws, including compliance with speed limits.It is the key element in successfully implementing the Safe System Approach (12).Stronger speed enforcement has been shown to improve compliance with speed limits and subsequently reduce crashes and fatalities (26).
The fear of being caught and fined when speeding is one of the main reasons why drivers and riders avoid speeding (13).A study by Ayuningtyas et al. (2021) in West Java Province, Indonesia found that the main reasons that motorcyclists give when questioned why they speed is that they want to reach their destination faster and they know that the police are more concerned with licencing and registration documents rather than speeding (4).
There are numerous studies regarding the effectiveness of speed enforcement.DaCota in 2012 showed that there had been significant improvements resulting from speed enforcement, particularly on reducing both speeding behaviour and the number of crashes (12).However, the size of the reported effects of speed enforcement differ.For example, a meta-analysis study by Erke in 2009 using 45 studies found crashes at all levels of severity reduced by 18% crashes when speed was enforced (27).Pilkington and Kinra found that casualty and crash reductions in the immediate vicinity of speed camera locations varied between 17% and 71% for fatalities, 12% and 65% for injuries, and 5% and 69% for crashes, (28).A study by Soole et al found that strengthened speed enforcement had demonstrated positive effects on vehicle speeds, decreasing both the average and 85th percentile speeds by up to one-third (29).
It should be noted that the primary goal of speed enforcement is to discourage drivers/riders from speeding, not only in relation to future behaviour of those who have been apprehended but more importantly, for those who are not.Enforcement needs to evoke the perception in a driver's mind that anywhere at any time they can be caught speeding and will either have to pay a fine and/or possibly lose their licence.Furthermore, enforcement operations need to focus on roads, conditions and time where speeding has the most negative impact on road safety levels.Preferably, enforcement operations should be based on a comprehensive analysis of road crashes, their outcomes, and the role of speeding in the crash (13).

Benefits of Introducing a Strongly Enforced Helmet Law 2.4.1 Benefits of Wearing Helmet for Motorcyclists
Helmets help protect a motorcyclist against moderate impact forces to the head during a crash.The evidence supporting helmet use as an injury prevention measure is robust, with estimates indicating significant reductions in deaths and various types of head injuries.The World Health Organization notes that helmet use has been related to reductions in head injuries as follows: 28%-64% for fatal injuries, 58%-60% for head injuries, 47%-74% for brain injuries, 14%-63% for face injuries, and 14%-48% for neck injuries (14).Furthermore, wearing a full-face helmet offers additional benefits by protecting motorcyclists from various traffic noise-related health problems that can result in headaches, depression, tiredness, and fatigue problems (30).
However, the effectiveness of wearing a helmet also depends on helmet type and how it is fixed to the head.A helmet that is not properly fastened can be ejected from the head during a high-impact crash, therefore offering no protection.In comparison, motorcyclists who wear loosely fastened helmets increase their risk of head injury almost two times than those with firmly fastened helmet.Additionally, a full face helmet offers greater resistance to ejection compared to an open face helmet.Full face helmets also offer protection to the lower part of the head (jaw and neck) and therefore provides greater safety (14,31).

Indonesia Helmet Wearing Rates Compared to Other Countries
Table 2 compares helmet wearing rates for ITF member countries with the highest and lowest road fatality rates (see Figure 4).However, it should be noted that national data related to helmet-wearing rates is not available in Indonesia.As a result, data from Bandung City was used as a proxy for national data.Table 2 shows that countries with the lowest fatality rates had higher helmet wearing rates compared to countries with the highest fatality rates.In Indonesia's case, the helmet wearing rates are similar to those countries with highest fatality rates.Considering that motorcyclists are the largest contributors to road fatalities in Indonesia, and helmets have been proven to significantly enhance rider and pillion safety, it is important to increase the rate of helmet usage among motorcyclists.This is not only in line with Indonesia's road safety target of ensuring all riders wear helmets by 2030 but also helps mitigate the impact of road crashes on motorcyclists.To increase compliance with helmet laws, strong enforcement of the helmet law, rider licencing and speeding combine with education would be the most effective way to achieve this goal.Such a policy strategy would work synergistically to increase not only rider compliance with helmet laws but also compliance with other traffic laws.

Benefits of Education and Stronger Enforcement of Helmet Law
Data from both high and low-income countries demonstrates that achieving a compliance rate of over 95% with a mandatory helmet law is feasible through active enforcement (14).Furthermore, as enforcement efforts increase, there is a corresponding increase in compliance with helmet laws.However, the effectiveness of enforcement can be significantly enhanced when combined with education campaigns.According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2023), enforcement combined with education is eight times more effective than enforcement alone, and approximately 12 times more effective than education alone (14).
A systematic review and meta-analysis was carried out by Lepard et al. (2021) examining what effect enforcement and education campaigns have on helmet use among motorcycle riders and pillions.Evidence strongly supports the notion that a combined approach, integrating both enforcement and education, is more effective in promoting helmet usage and improving road safety for motorcyclists.Furthermore, Lepard et al. (2021) found mass media campaigns aimed at promoting helmet use are effective, but their impact becomes more pronounced when they are run for an extended duration, preferably lasting more than a year.Shorter campaigns may not be sufficient to bring about significant behavioural changes in helmet usage among motorcycle users (34).
To ensure the success of any helmet wearing campaign for motorcyclists, visible and sustained enforcement measures on the road are essential.The fear of penalties is often cited by motorcycle users as one of the motivating factors for wearing helmets.Actively enforcing helmet laws can serve as a strong deterrent and encourage compliance with the legislation, ultimately leading to increased helmet usage and a large reduction in rider/pillion casualties (35).Evidence from various countries also shows that the successful enforcement of mandatory helmet laws is feasible across different income levels.To ensure the effectiveness of such legislation, key elements include effective enforcement measures, ensuring the availability of affordable helmets, and conducting extensive education campaigns for both police and the community (14).

Analysis of Potential Benefits 3.1 Estimating Fatality Reduction with Stronger Speed Enforcement
Bandung City data indicates that around 24.63% of motorcycles exceeded the speed limit by more than 10%, whereas riders exceeding the speed limit by more than 20% was 18.6%, on national six-lane twoway divided road in urban areas (3).In other words, more than 40% of motorcyclists exceed the speed limit on these national roads (3).
Reducing the speed limit and enforcing against speeding behaviour, the reduction in deaths and serious injuries would be significant.Figure 3 shows that a reduction of 4% in travel speed would result in almost 20% reduction in deaths whereas a 10% change in speed would result in an even higher reduction of around 40%.It is important to note that the effect is not linear but follows a power line relationship, meaning that as speed decreases, the likelihood of a driver or a rider surviving a crash increase significantly.
Stronger speed enforcement has proven to result in a significant reduction in road FSIs.A study conducted by ICF Consulting before the EU enlargement of 2004 revealed that effective enforcement practices could prevent 5800 road deaths annually resulting from speeding (36).In Chicago, the installation of speed cameras to enhance enforcement between 2013 and 2014 led to an estimated 12% reduction in FSI crashes across treated segments, with a 15% decline in fatalities and severe injury crashes from 2015 to 2017 (37).
A 2007 report by Kfv found there was around 75% reduction in fatal crashes in France between 2003 and 2005 after the strict application of "zero tolerance" for speed enforcement with the introduction of up to 1000 fixed and 500 mobile speed cameras focussing on high crash risk locations.The number of road deaths dropped by more than 35% within the last five years from 8160 (2001) to 5318 (2005), which represents the best progress of any EU country over this period (36).Additionally, a 2000 study by Tay carrying out a before and after study (with case controls) focussing on stronger speed enforcement using speed cameras in Christchurch, New Zealand, found serious injury crashes reduced by 32.3% and 9.17% in total crashes (38).In Western Australia, mobile speed camera operations in regional areas led to an estimated reduction of 18% and 13% in fatal crashes within 500 and 1000 meters of the camera site for every 100 speed camera sessions undertaken per month (13).
There were approximately 25,270 road fatalities in 2021 in Indonesia of which around 81% are made up of riders and pillions, i.e., around 20,500 motorcyclists.Using Bandung City data as a proxy for the whole of Indonesia, speeding accounted for 25% of all crashes, where 24.63% of motorcyclists exceeded the speed limit by more than 10% and 18.6% of riders exceeded the speed limit by more than 20%.That means around 5,125 riders killed were involved in speeding crashes of which around 40% exceed the speed limit.Using the relationship shown in Figure 3, estimating about a 70%-80% reduction in fatalities if strong speed enforcement were introduced, approximately 3,500 lives would be potentially saved.

Estimating Fatality Reduction with Stronger Helmet Enforcement
Strong enforcing of helmet laws would lead to a substantial decrease in both fatal and serious injuries, where the nonfatal injury rate could decline by as much as approximately 20% (14).The evidence from various countries, particularly for LMICs (34), indicates the feasibility of successfully implementing mandatory helmet law across all nations, regardless of their income level (14), would result in significant FSI reductions.Peng et al. (2017) in their systematic review of 60 studies indicated that implementing universal helmet laws which increased helmet use by 47% resulted in a reduction of total deaths by 32% and injuries by 32% (39).Moreover, in Thailand, after the enforcement of a helmet law act, helmet wearing among motorcyclists increased five-fold resulting in a reduction in deaths by 41.4% (40).Similarly, a study in Malaysia estimated a 30% reduction in fatalities after the introduction and enforcement of their helmet law (41).
Again, considering the total number of rider/pillion deaths is around 20,500, where around only 77% of riders and 50% of pillions are wearing a helmet, the deaths resulting from head injuries could be estimated to be around 25%, i.e., around 4,000 deaths.If a helmet law was strongly enforced, the potential benefit of 30% to 40% in fatality reductions could possibly result in around 1,500 lives saved.

Best Practice for Increasing Speed and Helmet Law Enforcement using AI Technology
Considering the significant benefits of stronger enforcement of speed limits and helmet law compliance to reduce fatality rates, a strategy on how to strengthen enforcement is needed.Introducing speed cameras along with the promotion of enforcement activities represents one of the most impactful, evidence based, and cost-effective measures aligned with global best practices for reducing speeds, preventing fatalities, and minimising injuries (42)(43)(44).This is consistent with Indonesia's seven point risk factor road safety plan which includes introducing speed control and increasing helmet wearing (1).
The use of AI technology with speed cameras increases public perception that enforcement can happen anywhere and at any time.Indonesia has started to introduce AI technology for monitoring speeding behaviour on several toll and urban roads.Patriot et al.'s case study looking at Indonesian Toll roads found that after the installation of 75 speed camera units, drivers who obeyed the speed limit rose significantly to around 76.6% (45).Furthermore, numerous studies around the world have found the effectiveness of speed camera increases the level of compliance with speed limits resulting in reducing fatality rates.For example, intensifying enforcement and penalties using speed cameras in France during a one year observation for 400 speed cameras showed that fatal and injury crashes decreased by 40% to 65% (44).Additionally, the assessment of 20 speed cameras initially implemented in the state of New South Wales, Australia demonstrated a substantial 71% reduction in speeding and resulted in a reduction of 89% in fatalities at the treated locations (46).
Utilising speed camera enforcement becomes particularly suitable when crashes are concentrated on particular road segments and areas where excess speeding occurs, and when the traffic volume makes physical policing less efficient and less effective (12).Point-to-point speed camera enforcement is one of the most effective methods for speed enforcement, where the average speed of vehicles is measured over longer distances, ranging from 1km to over 100km in length (46).Considering the financial constraints associated with installing speed cameras, it is essential to prioritise their placement in strategic locations to maximise their effectiveness and efficiency.One approach to achieve this would be by conducting a thorough analysis to identify blackspot locations for motorcyclists in Indonesia, particularly in high-speed areas with high casualty rates.
AI technology used in speed cameras can also be utilised to enforce helmet-wearing laws, making it a more effective and cost-efficient use of traffic cameras.By integrating helmet-wearing enforcement with speed cameras, authorities can simultaneously target multiple traffic violations, such as speeding and failure to wear helmets (or seatbelts) (14,34,47).This approach can lead to increased compliance rates with various traffic laws and contribute to overall road safety improvement.Furthermore, speed cameras can also be integrated to penalise violators, in accordance with the Traffic Law in Indonesia for speeding and helmet wearing (9).Moreover, the funds gained from penalising violators can also be allocated to installing additional speed cameras, thereby expanding coverage to a wider area to enhance enforcement efforts.
It is also important to recognise that the effectiveness of enforcement can be further improved when complemented by education.These educational initiatives can take the form of campaigns and traffic training programs aimed at promoting responsible motorcycling and obtaining proper motorcycling licenses.

Conclusion and Recommendation
Motorcyclists are the largest contributor to road fatalities in Indonesia, with the main causal factors being speeding and not wearing helmets.There is an urgent need to increase compliance with speed limits and helmet usage to reduce fatality rates among motorcyclists in Indonesia, which would be consistent with the Indonesian government's road safety plan.Based on evidence and best practices from other countries and research studies, stronger enforcement has been found to be one of the most cost-effective ways to increase the level of compliance with speed limits and helmet wearing, resulting in significant fatality reductions of around 3,500 lives, i.e., about an 18% reduction in Indonesian fatalities overall.
Furthermore, it also has been proven that enforcement alone is around eight times less effective than enforcement combined with education and providing education alone without enforcement is twelve times less effective than when combined with enforcement.Reinforcing enforcement using AI technology in speed cameras, in combination with educational campaigns, is now becoming world's best practice in road trauma reduction.This enhances the public's perception that enforcement can occur anytime and anywhere, creating a deterrent effect that encourages compliance with speed limits, helmet laws, and other traffic regulations, leading to the consequent avoidance of fines or penalties.
One of the recommended types of speed cameras to install are point-to-point speed cameras.To maximise their effectiveness while considering the cost limitations, it is important to identify blackspot locations for motorcyclists, particularly areas with high instances of speeding behaviour.Conducting a study before and after installing speed cameras can help measure their impact on FSI reductions accurately.Media campaigns, license tests, and other educational initiatives can significantly enhance the effectiveness of enforcement measures when carried out together.

Figure 3 .
Figure 3. Relationship between change in travel speed and changes in casualty rates (17, 18).

Table 1 .
(25)24)l speed limits in ITF member countries and Indonesia(23,24).US speed limit is set by each state; Nevada speed limit was based on Official Driver Handbook Nevada, 2023(25) a