Towards a Sustainable Future: Design and Fabrication of a Solar-Powered Electric Vehicle

The integration of solar PV technology with the burgeoning EV market has the potential to expedite the transition towards sustainable and environmentally friendly transportation. By intertwining solar PV technology with the expanding EV landscape, this collaborative effort aims to secure a greener future for forthcoming generations. In particular, the performance, security, and long-term viability of solar-powered electric vehicles (EVs) hinge significantly upon the design of their chassis and body. Solar panels seamlessly integrated into the vehicle’s structure serve as sunlight receptors, transforming solar energy into electricity. This electricity, in turn, propels the vehicle’s engine or is efficiently stored in batteries for subsequent utilization. The intricate interplay between these elements underscores the complex nature of developing a successful solar-powered EV. By perspective and weaving together innovative technologies, sustainable design, and strategic integration, the endeavor to establish efficient and eco-friendly solar-powered EVs gains traction, ultimately contributing to a cleaner and more sustainable transportation future. This study undertakes a comprehensive evaluation, meticulously assessing the possibilities, challenges, and potential widespread application of solar PV-EV charging systems. This presents an opportunity for stakeholders to play a pivotal role in shaping the future of transportation. The findings of this research furnish invaluable insights that can catalyze decision-makers, businesses, and researchers in their efforts to drive a revolutionary transformation of the transportation industry.


Introduction
The increasing need for energy sources is a concern in today's field of engineering.Currently a significant portion of the world's energy comes from gas and petroleum.Despite their availability there is a growing interest in exploring options like solar energy [1].Solar energy is receiving research attention due to its potential as a power source.In the past solar panels used to capture energy were not efficient enough to make them a practical choice for replacing fossil fuels.However, advancements in materials have led to improvements in the efficiency of panels.As a result, solar energy is now becoming an sustainable resource that can contribute to meeting energy demands.Based on data from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 26% of greenhouse gas emissions in 2014 were caused by transportation.Given this context the focus of our project is to develop a concept solar powered car [2].While vehicles have previously been modified to run on fuels our project will specifically concentrate on creating an electric car powered by solar energy, for urban applications.The vehicle will be designed according to the specifications outlined by the Shell Eco marathon Urban Concept Battery Electric competition.This initiative seeks to tackle the issues IOP Publishing doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1285/1/012035 2 associated with emissions from transportation by utilizing energy as a sustainable and eco-friendly source of power, for cars [3].
Transitioning to the widespread use of this type of solar-powered vehicle could have a substantial impact on reducing fuel demand.However, there are several challenges associated with making this vehicle a practical and commercially viable option [5].One of the primary challenges lies in selecting a design that balances various factors.Firstly, the vehicle must be lightweight in order to minimize the size and power requirements of the motor, which is essential for meeting the demands of urban transportation.As the vehicle is designed to accommodate only one driver, the practicality of including additional space for passengers and cargo must also be considered.Efficiency is a critical factor when using solar energy for propulsion [6].The solar panel must be highly efficient to generate sufficient power within a reasonable timeframe for driving.This involves making a series of decisions during the selection process.Both mechanical and electrical engineering considerations must be considered, especially in relation to the specific requirements of the urban concept division of the Shell Eco-marathon.In terms of manufacturing, components will be sourced, some of which may need to be machined to meet the unique size and specifications of the vehicle.These decisions will be influenced by both budget constraints and the feasibility of fabrication.Choosing the appropriate chassis and body for the solar-powered electric vehicle involves careful consideration of factors such as weight, strength, aerodynamics, and energy efficiency.The chassis provides the structural foundation, while the body contributes to the vehicle's aerodynamic shape and overall style.In essence, the successful development of a practical and commercially viable solar-powered vehicle requires a delicate balance between engineering considerations, material selection, manufacturing feasibility, and economic constraints.Addressing these challenges systematically can pave the way for the adoption of such vehicles as a sustainable and efficient mode of urban transportation [7].

Significant
The chassis is the foundation of the vehicle and is responsible for providing structural support and stability.The selection of the chassis is influenced by factors such as the weight of the vehicle, the size of the battery pack, and the power train.The material used to construct the chassis should be strong, lightweight, and durable to ensure optimal performance and safety.In addition, the chassis should be selected to accommodate the battery pack, motor, and other components of the power train [8].
The body of the vehicle is responsible for providing aerodynamic efficiency, safety, and comfort to the occupants.The design of the body is influenced by factors such as the size of the vehicle, the number of occupants, and the desired range.The body should be designed to minimize air resistance, which will help to increase the vehicle's range and efficiency.In addition, the body should be designed to provide adequate safety features such as airbags, seat belts, and a strong passenger compartment.The body structure of a solar-powered electric car is designed in such a way it reduces energy consumption, increase solar energy conversion rate and optimize the use of the car's battery.So that the car is efficient, practical and safe for everyday use.The chassis of a solar-powered electric vehicle must be designed to withstand the weight of the vehicle, passengers, and cargo, as well as the forces generated during acceleration, braking, and cornering.The use of lightweight materials, such as carbon fiber, aluminum, or high-strength steel, can help reduce the weight of the chassis while maintaining its strength [9].
The body of a solar-powered electric vehicle should be selected with aerodynamics in mind to reduce drag and improve energy efficiency.A streamlined shape can help reduce wind resistance and improve the vehicle's range by allowing it to travel further on a single charge.Solar panels can be integrated into the body to capture sunlight and convert it into electrical energy, which can be used to power the vehicle's motor or stored in batteries for later use [10].

Literature Review
The design process necessitates the utilization of a diverse range of software tools and extensive research to accomplish the set objectives.SolidWorks will be employed for modeling, drafting, and assembling the components.Journals and websites will serve as sources for research on electrical components, their performance, and procurement.Engineering Equation Solver (EES) and Microsoft Excel were utilized to conduct parametric analyses, ascertain motor size, and perform safety factor assessments.Suspension and steering parameters were determined using V susp (vehicle suspension), an accessible online software tool.
Singh and Arya, 2019, [11] The Government of India (GoI) is actively fostering the advancement of renewable energy generation within the country.As a testament to its commitment, India has secured the remarkable fifth position globally in terms of installed capacity for renewable energy sources.The GoI's proactive efforts and initiatives have propelled the growth of renewable energy infrastructure, enabling the nation to significantly contribute to the global shift towards sustainable energy practices.Through targeted policies, incentives, and investments, India has harnessed the power of renewable sources such as solar, wind, hydroelectric, and more.This achievement underscores India's dedication to reducing its carbon footprint and dependence on fossil fuels.By harnessing the potential of renewable energy, the country is not only enhancing its energy security but also contributing to mitigating the adverse impacts of climate change on a global scale.The notable progress made by the GoI in renewable energy installation capacity positions India as a key player in the global transition towards cleaner and greener energy solutions.This accomplishment also serves as an inspiration for other nations to accelerate their efforts in embracing sustainable energy sources for a more environmentally conscious future.
Yilmaz and Krein, 2013, [12] India's resolute commitment to renewable energy expansion is driving a significant push towards achieving a remarkable ambition: to top the list in global renewable energy installed capacity.Bolstered by pioneering initiatives and forward-thinking policies, India is steadfast in its pursuit of becoming a renewable energy leader on the global stage.Capitalizing on advancements in Electric Vehicle (EV) technology and grid infrastructure, India is exploring innovative avenues for sustainable energy utilization.A prominent development in this realm is the emergence of Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology, a transformative concept where groups of EVs are capable of engaging in power transactions with the electrical grid, thus actively contributing to grid demands.This approach gains significance due to the fact that a substantial majority of vehicles remain parked for approximately 90% to 95% of their operational duration.Leveraging this dormant period, EVs possess the potential to function as a dynamic power resource through their participation in grid-related activities.V2G technology facilitates an array of benefits, including peak shaving, valley filling, load leveling, and load shifting.Moreover, the internal capacitor within the EV battery serves as a valuable asset by providing reactive power support to the grid.By integrating V2G capabilities into the broader framework of renewable energy expansion, India is not only reinforcing its commitment to sustainability but also showcasing its adeptness in harnessing cutting-edge technology to create a symbiotic relationship between EVs and the grid.This visionary approach not only complements the renewable energy agenda but also offers a tangible solution to address peak demand challenges and grid stability issues.As India continues its journey towards a future fueled by renewable energy, the incorporation of V2G technology stands as a testament to the nation's determination to usher in a new era of energy efficiency, environmental responsibility, and innovative synergy between transportation and power systems.
Kutkut and Klontz (1997), [13] The realm of Electric Vehicle (EV) charging is governed by established standards to ensure seamless compatibility and efficient charging infrastructure.Notable international standards include the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), CHArge de MOve (CHAdeMO), and the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE).These standards play a pivotal role in shaping the EV charging landscape, catering to diverse charging needs and technologies.Both the IEC and SAE standards encompass both Alternating Current (AC) and Direct Current (DC) charging solutions.In contrast, CHAdeMO exclusively focuses on Direct Current charging.The distinctions between AC and DC charging types are characterized by their respective charging levels.
India is blessed with abundant solar and wind resources, offering a promising avenue for power generation and reducing reliance on thermal power plants.Recognizing this potential, the National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE) has projected that a substantial 302 GW of power can be harnessed from wind sources, a concept endorsed by the Ministry of Power (MoP).Similarly, the National Institute of Solar Energy (NISE) in collaboration with the MoP and the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has embarked on an ambitious mission to establish 100 GW of solar photovoltaic (PV) capacity by the year 2022.This drive towards renewable energy adoption is driven by a combination of factors.India's ever-growing population, surging peak energy demand, the imperative of electrification in remote terrains, and the goal of reducing dependence on thermal power plants have all converged to create a compelling impetus for these initiatives.Interestingly, despite these efforts, a critical gap persists in existing literaturespecifically, the absence of a comprehensive exploration of solar PV-powered Electric Vehicle Charging Stations (EVCS) tailored to the diverse regions of India.To bridge this gap, this paper undertakes a unique endeavor.It selects four distinct locations-Shillong, Bengaluru, Jaipur, and Kashmir-each representative of varying solar irradiation conditions prevalent across the country.Shillong, nestled in North Eastern India, exemplifies the challenging terrain regions.Jaipur, situated in North Western India, boasts substantial solar potential.Meanwhile, the valley of Kashmir presents its unique solar context.Bengaluru, a bustling metropolis, adds another dimension to the study.By scrutinizing these locations through the lens of solar PV-powered EVCS deployment, The outcome of this study holds significant implications for future sustainable energy planning, particularly in the context of EV adoption and the transformation of the energy landscape in India.By contextualizing solar PV-powered EVCS deployment within the diverse solar conditions of these four locations, the research endeavors to pave the way for more tailored and effective renewable energy integration across the nation [14].The focus of this paper centers on a 10 kW EV-PV charger, capable of both charging and discharging the vehicle up to 10 kW, as depicted in Figure 2.This aligns with the draft proposal of the CHAdeMO standard, envisioning 10 kW Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) capability from the EV.The system architecture involves a three-port converter linked to the 50 Hz AC grid, deemed suitable based on [15].Considering the extended parking durations of 7 to 9 hours at the workplace, high-speed charging exceeding 50 kW appears unnecessary.Notably, solar power assumes a pivotal role as the primary energy source for this grid-connected EV-PV charging system.A 10 kWp photovoltaic (PV) array generates solar power, situated within the workplace vicinity.These panels can be situated on the building's rooftop or configured as a solar carport [16].
The EV-PV charger incorporates dual bidirectional ports for grid and EV connections, alongside a unidirectional port for PV input.The PV converter, grid inverter, and isolated EV charger are all harmoniously integrated onto a central DC link.The decision to directly interface EV and PV on DC stems from the benefits of streamlined conversion processes and enhanced overall system efficiency compared to AC interfacing.This holistic configuration, aiming to unite EV charging with solar power generated by PV, holds the potential to achieve substantial advancements in sustainable transportation and the integration of renewable energy.[17].

PV System Design
To accurately analyze the power and energy output of a 10 kWp photovoltaic (PV) array located in the Netherlands, precise meteorological data is indispensable.To meet this requirement, meteorological data obtained from the Dutch Meteorological Institute (KNMI) is employed, offering a resolution of 1 minute [18].This dataset encompasses crucial parameters such as Global Horizontal Irradiance (SGHI), Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (SDHI), Direct Normal Irradiance (SDNI), and ambient temperature (Ta).Spanning from 2011 to 2013, these datasets serve as the fundamental basis for assessing the performance of the PV array.For modeling purposes, a 10 kWp PV array is simulated using MATLAB, integrating 30 SunPower E20-327 modules, each with a rated output of 327W [19].These modules are configured into 5 parallel strings, with each string comprising 6 modules connected in series, resulting in a cumulative installed capacity of 9810 W. Accurate determination of solar irradiance on a module (Sm) with specific azimuth (Am) and tilt angle (hm) relies on a comprehensive understanding of the sun's varying positions throughout the year.
A solar position calculator developed based on references [20], serves as a valuable tool for determining the azimuth (As) and altitude (as) of the sun's position throughout the year at the location of the KNMI observatory.Leveraging this solar position information, the irradiance on a solar panel with a specified orientation (Am, hm) can be estimated.This estimation utilizes geometric models outlined in references [21] and incorporates the Isotropic sky diffused model [22].Furthermore, the components of Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) and Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (DHI), specifically SDNI m and SDHI m, incident on the panel, are integrated into the calculations.This comprehensive approach, which combines accurate meteorological data and advanced modeling techniques, empowers the evaluation of power and energy generation from the 10 kWp PV array.By accounting for factors such as the sun's position, module orientation, and various irradiance components, this analysis contributes to a precise understanding of the PV system's performance within the specific climatic conditions of the Netherlands.Global Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) System Deployment.
The robust expansion of the solar PV market has been a compelling driver, underscored by the Renewables 2017 report, which highlighted the remarkable addition of 165 gigawatts (GW) of capacity from renewables in 2016.This accounted for an impressive 66.7% of the net global power capacity.Significantly, the solar PV sector emerged as the swiftest-growing industry in 2016, and this momentum is anticipated to persist with a resilient growth trajectory in the foreseeable future.Projections indicate a striking growth rate of 43% by the year 2022 [23].Solar photovoltaic (PV) electricity offers a promising avenue for mid-day charging of Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs), strategically located at demand points [24].Solar energy has firmly entrenched itself as a highly sought-after energy source.While earlier studies focused on producing solar energy potential maps derived from solar irradiation data, this study diverges by directly examining solar energy generation, taking a comprehensive array of parameters into consideration.Notably, solar PV power generation is not solely contingent on solar radiation levels at a specific location.Several other critical factors come into play, including operational conditions, ambient temperature, wind speed, weather patterns, topography, and environmental factors such as the sun's position and irradiation levels [38,39,41,42].
Through systematic analysis, locations with high and low solar energy generation potential have been identified, with solar energy parameters computed for each grid point (1° × 1°) [25].Figure 2 illustrates a solar irradiance map, listing the top ten countries globally based on their installed solar power capacity [40].The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) provides a solar energy potential database, revealing that countries near the equator possess exceptionally high solar energy potential due to their favorable positioning.Tropical countries like India and Australia are endowed with rich solar resources, exemplified by India's receipt of nearly 3000 hours of sunshine annually.This solar energy abundance translates to an equivalent of 5000 trillion kWh of energy, enabling the generation of over 1900 billion units of solar power annually.This capacity can adequately fulfill the entire annual power demand, even by 2030 [43][44][45].
The integration of increasing renewable sources, such as PV, poses grid integration challenges, particularly in managing fluctuations in PV system output power.These fluctuations can impact power quality and grid stability, a challenge that the manuscript addresses in subsequent sections.Strategies involving battery storage and ultracapacitors have been employed to mitigate PV power fluctuations [26].Furthermore, solar energy, although abundant, is distributed and intermittent compared to concentrated energy sources like coal and nuclear.This intermittent and dilute nature necessitate significant land requirements for harnessing solar energy effectively.

Impact on Environment
One of the primary driving forces behind the escalating popularity of Electric Vehicles (EVs) is their pivotal role in curbing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.Unlike conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, which directly burn fuels, leading to the emission of harmful gases such as carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) with internal combustion engines emit fewer pollutants.However, it's important to note that if EVs contribute excess load during peak hours, conventional power plants may need to operate, resulting in increased CO2 emissions.Integrating renewable sources, which EVs can effectively support, presents a solution to reduce emissions from both power generation and transportation sectors.Over their lifetimes, EVs emit fewer greenhouse gases compared to conventional vehicles [27].
This parameter, often referred to as "well-to-wheel" emissions, is notably lower for EVs.Aligned with the Paris Agreement's goals, which seek to limit global temperature rise to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, and even strive for 1.5°C, the automotive sector holds a significant role in reducing GHG emissions.India, recognizing its environmental commitment, aims to mitigate pollution and carbon footprint through internal and external efforts.It's important to dispel the notion that EVs produce zero CO2 emissions.The generation of electricity itself results in CO2 emissions, particularly in regions where fossil fuels like gas and coal dominate electricity production.The adoption of EVs could potentially increase electricity industry CO2 emissions unless renewable energy sources power the EV recharging process.India, for instance, reports a net CO2 emission of 910 g/kWh to 950 g/kWh from thermal power plants during the period of 2001-2002 to 2009-2010 [28].
Different power plant types, such as natural gas combined cycle (NGCC) and imported coal, exhibit varying CO2 emissions associated with electricity generation.India, with its substantial population of over 1.2 billion people, faces the challenge of providing equitable energy supplies at an affordable cost.The country has witnessed a staggering 16-fold increase in energy use and an 84-fold increase in installed electricity capacity over the past six decades [29].The decreasing cost of photovoltaic (PV) modules presents an economic advantage for solar charging [30], outweighing localized drawbacks.India's energy landscape predominantly relies on thermal energy, with around 70% of overall electricity generation sourced from non-renewable thermal sources such as coal.This dependence raises environmental concerns and underscores the need for transitioning to renewable energy sources like solar power.However, solar energy generation is perceived as costly, and the technical awareness necessary for adopting solar equipment remains limited.
Overseas companies often dominate technology supply, highlighting the need for increased domestic research.As electric vehicle adoption surges in various markets, incentives and tax relaxations drive growth.With decreasing costs of lithium-ion batteries, EVs are expected to become competitively priced relative to internal combustion engine vehicles.The primary barriers to EV penetration are battery price and range [31].While there's a shared global effort to combat global warming and pollution by adopting renewable energy, achieving 100% renewable-based charging systems worldwide isn't economically feasible.Factors like existing fossil-fuel reliant power systems and limitations in large-scale PV production influence generalized acceptance.In light of these challenges, a balanced approach includes increasing the share of renewable energy sustainably in power generation.This can involve an on-grid solar charging system supplemented by the grid.
Alternatively, an off-grid standalone system offers flexibility and design freedom, albeit at a higher cost.The paper emphasizes the importance of reducing GHG emissions from electricity production, especially as EV adoption increases.Renewable energy usage for EV charging aids in alleviating grid stress.Furthermore, EVs prove environmentally friendly when charged using renewable energy sources.However, comparing energy efficiency between EVs and internal combustion engine vehicles requires considering primary energy terms and accounting for different energy sources.In summary, the contribution of EVs to lowering GHG emissions is significant, but challenges persist.The adoption of renewable energy sources for EV charging is a pivotal step toward a sustainable and cleaner energy future [32].
From the perspective of Electric Vehicle (EV) owners, EVs present distinct advantages in terms of operational costs owing to their superior efficiency compared to Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) vehicles [33].EVs can achieve efficiencies of up to 70%, whereas ICE vehicles typically operate within the range of 60-70%.Despite the current higher initial investment for EVs, the projected increase in mass production and improved energy policies are anticipated to drive down costs, offering even more compelling economic benefits to EV owners.Furthermore, the emergence of Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology empowers EV owners to generate financial gains by contributing to grid services.Power service providers can harness the integration of EVs by implementing coordinated charging and V2G strategies, enabling more effective peak shaving methods and the integration of renewable energy sources.The widespread adoption of EV fleets can yield significant cost savings, estimated to be around $200-$300 per vehicle annually.
Although electric vehicles have a history dating back to the late 1800s, their popularity waned around 1918 due to the rise of gasoline engines and the convenience of electric starters for internal combustion engines.However, the current landscape is undergoing a transformation driven by the trend towards decentralized large-scale renewable energy production, facilitated by the decreasing cost of photovoltaic (PV) panels.The convergence of electric vehicles and PV systems presents a distinctive opportunity for sustainable EV charging.Numerous countries are setting ambitious goals for the integration of renewable energy and electric vehicles into their energy portfolios.For instance, Germany's Erneuerbare Energien Gesetz (EEG) aims to achieve a renewable energy share of 40-45% by 2025, with further escalation to 55-60% by 2035 [63].China, a global leader in both PV production and the electric vehicle market, envisions substantial growth with an approximate 58% share of the global PV market.France is targeting a 23% share of total energy consumption from renewable sources by 2020, with goals to create positive energy buildings and have 30% of vehicle sales as rechargeable electric or hybrid vehicles [34].
India's FAME India mission envisions 200,000 EVs on the roads by 2020.Numerous studies across various regions have highlighted the economic and environmental benefits of charging EVs using solar panels.A study in Northeast Asia (NEA) emphasized the potential for renewable energy to decarbonize the power system, resulting in substantial CO2 emissions reductions.The shift towards renewables could lead to a significant decrease in emissions from power generation.Despite the initial costs of renewables and transmission lines, the overall benefits of significant renewables deployment outweigh the costs, particularly when considering fuel savings and long-term energy prices [35].In conclusion, the landscape for EVs and renewable energy is evolving rapidly, driven by economic, environmental, and policy factors.EVs, combined with renewable energy sources like solar panels, hold the promise of reducing emissions, improving energy efficiency, and transforming the transportation and energy sectors for a more sustainable future.

Methodology:
1. Research Design: ¾ Employ a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative data analysis and qualitative assessments.

Research Objectives:
¾ Evaluate solar-powered EV performance, security, and long-term viability.¾ Identify challenges and opportunities in solar PV-EV integration.

Data Collection:
¾ Primary data sources: surveys, on-road testing, interviews.¾ Secondary data sources: literature review, market analysis.

Sampling:
¾ Population: Solar PV-integrated EVs and relevant stakeholders.¾ Sampling methods: Convenience, purposeful, and random sampling.¾ Determine sample size based on statistical power calculations.

Ethical Considerations:
¾ Obtain informed consent.¾ Ensure data anonymity and confidentiality.¾ Adhere to ethical guidelines and regulations 7. Findings and Recommendations: ¾ Identify key findings.¾ Formulate recommendations for stakeholders.

FACTORS CONSIDERED FOR THE SELECTION OF CHASSIS:
Choosing a chassis for a solar-powered EV involves key considerations like material selection (steel, aluminum, carbon fiber, or magnesium), ensuring structural rigidity, optimizing weight, accommodating battery placement, prioritizing aerodynamics, ensuring impact safety, space utilization, manufacturing feasibility, and suspension integration.The monologue chassis type, dimensions, safety standards, and cost-effectiveness also play crucial roles in crafting an efficient and balanced electric vehicle design [36].

TYPE OF CHASSIS USED IN SOLAR-POWERED EV:
The solar-powered EV employs a Monocoque Chassis, which integrates the vehicle frame and body into a single composite structure.This chassis type offers enhanced stiffness, weight advantages, and load distribution, contributing to improved vehicle performance.It efficiently distributes forces, ensuring balance, stability, and superior handling.Torsional rigidity, crash safety, weight efficiency, and noise control are additional benefits.The model's dimensions are Length: 3335mm, Width: 1440mm, Height: 1405mm, with a seating capacity of 4, showcasing its compact and efficient 1285 ( 2024

DRUM BRAKES:
Brake shoes fitted with friction linings make contact with the inner surface of drums, resulting in the creation of braking force.This setup facilitates the conversion of kinetic energy into thermal energy via friction.While the rotation of the drum enhances the generated braking force, efficient heat dissipation remains a critical consideration.Drum brakes can be categorized into three types based on the manner in which the shoes interact with the drums: leading/trailing shoe, twin leading shoe, and duo-servo configurations.

DISC BRAKE:
Disc brakes represent a more advanced and contemporary braking technology, delivering substantial braking force within a compact layout.Upon the driver's activation of the brake pedal, hydraulic pressure is generated by the master cylinder and transmitted to the wheel brakes through a network of brake fluid-filled tubing.This hydraulic pressure activates pistons within the wheel brakes, leading to efficient and effective braking action.
.  To ensure proper battery charging without the risk of overcharging, solar charge controllers play a crucial role in linking the panels and batteries.These controllers come equipped with advanced features like DC load terminals, contributing to precise charging and improved efficiency.The key components of a solar panel system include the solar array (panels), the converter, and the load (battery or electrical system).Proper control of the converter is essential to extract optimal power from the solar array.The EXIDE Polycrystalline panel, specifically the Model EIL100P36, boasts specifications such as a power output of 100 watts, maximum voltage of 18.18 volts, maximum current of 5.5 amps, and 36 cells.With a 12-volt output voltage and 6-amp output current, it provides 100 1285 (2024) 012035 IOP Publishing doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1285/1/0120359 watts of output power.When utilizing solar energy, the charging process for batteries typically takes around 13 to 14 hours.Polycrystalline panels are characterized by the presence of multiple silicon crystals within a single cell.These panels usually exhibit an efficiency ranging from 12% to 16% and come with a lifespan of approximately 25 years.Recognizable by their blue glass exterior, these panels often consist of 72 to 78 cells and are commonly used for residential applications.

SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER:
Figure:6.Solar Charge Controller A solar charge controller serves as a crucial electronic device responsible for managing the flow of power between solar panels and battery banks.Its primary functions include preventing battery overcharge during daylight hours, ensuring that power doesn't flow back to the panels at night, and optimizing the utilization of battery energy.Some controllers also provide features such as lightning and overload protection for added safety.Two main technologies, MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking) and PWM (Pulse Width Modulation), are available for solar charge control.Among these, MPPT is often preferred due to its higher efficiency, even though it tends to be more expensive and compact compared to PWM controllers.The MPPT technology involves an electronic converter that aligns the output of the solar array with the battery's charging requirements.It accomplishes this by converting the higher voltage generated by the panels to the necessary battery charging voltage.The MPPT controller performs various tasks, including sensing voltage and current, calculating solar array power, and tracking the maximum power point.Its strategy revolves around measuring changes in power and voltage before and after disturbances, determining the optimal direction for tracking during the next cycle.This intelligent tracking approach allows the MPPT controller to continuously adapt and ensure the efficient utilization of solar energy for battery charging.
The MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking) algorithm is renowned for striking a balance between performance and simplicity.However, it may fall short in swiftly adapting to rapid changes in various environmental conditions.The significance of MPPT lies in its ability to regulate the charge from solar panels, optimizing power output to efficiently charge batteries.This technique is employed to enhance the efficiency of solar panels by ensuring they operate at their peak power point, thereby maximizing overall efficiency.Despite the wide adoption of MPPT techniques across various types and applications, it's worth noting that these controllers might continue to evolve in the future.This evolution is expected to further enhance efficiency and cost-effectiveness, ultimately contributing to the advancement of solar energy utilization.

LITHIUM IRON PHOSPHATE BATTERY
The Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) battery, which was invented by Joan B. Goodenough in 1996, is commonly referred to as LFP.It falls within the category of lithium-ion batteries and is characterized by a cathode made of lithium iron phosphate and an anode composed of graphite carbon combined with metal.These batteries have gained significant prominence in the realm of electric vehicles, including cars, buses, and trucks.Key specifications of LFP batteries encompass their lithium iron phosphate composition, an output voltage of 72V, a current capacity of 25 ampere-hours, a power rating of 1800 watts, a configuration of 90 cells, an individual cell voltage of 3.2V, and a current of 3.27A per cell.These batteries demonstrate an adaptable lifespan depending on the applied load, boasting an impressive 12000 life cycles.Charging times for LFP batteries are approximately 13-14 hours when using AC charging, and a significantly expedited 3-hour charging time is achievable when utilizing solar panels.A Smart Battery Management System (BMS) plays a crucial role in monitoring, reporting, and effectively maintaining the health and performance of batteries in a wide range of applications.These applications include data centers, telecommunication towers, and energy storage stations.This intelligent system serves to protect and manage individual battery cells within a battery bank.It employs Bluetooth-enabled monitoring capabilities along with remote on/off functionalities.While overcharging has a minimal impact on battery capacity, over-discharge can significantly affect both capacity and the overall lifespan of the battery.In extreme cases, either over-discharge or overcharge can lead to irreversible battery damage.To prevent such damage and ensure the longevity of batteries, it is recommended to gradually use their capacity.This approach extends the battery's operational life and guarantees its peak performance over an extended period.

CONVERTER FOR AC CHARGING SYSTEM
The decision-making process between DC and AC charging systems for electric vehicles (EVs) involves considering various charging levels characterized by distinct current and voltage configurations.The charging duration varies depending on the chosen charging level.Additionally, the exploration of wireless charging introduces different setups into the equation.The choice between these systems is influenced by two key factors: the charging location and speed, which are intertwined with factors such as the specific EV model, battery capacity, and the selected charging infrastructure.For AC charging, a dedicated female connector (Type -RE2AC7206) designed for EVSE (Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment) AC charging is employed.This connector is matched with a corresponding male connector on the EV side.The AC charging setup operates with an input voltage of 230V AC and an input current of 3A.It offers a maximum output current of 0.6A and a maximum output voltage of 84V DC, contributing to the efficient charging of electric vehicles.The increasing adoption of Permanent Magnet Brushless DC (PM BLDC) motors in electric vehicles (EVs) is driven by their remarkable torque-speed characteristics, outstanding efficiency, and rapid responsiveness, particularly at higher speeds.These motors also offer the advantage of compact size, easy speed control, and a brushless design, which contributes to their popularity.Their versatility spans a wide range of speeds, and their low maintenance requirements add to their appeal.Often coupled with gearboxes through mechanical connections, these motors facilitate efficient power transmission and allow for adjustments in gear ratios.This integration ensures optimal delivery of torque and speed to the wheels, ultimately enhancing the overall performance of the electric vehicle.

DC-to-DC converters :
DC-to-DC converters play a vital role in temporarily storing electrical energy while facilitating the conversion of direct current (DC) from one voltage level to another.In the realm of automotive applications, these converters serve as essential intermediaries, ensuring seamless integration between various systems that operate at distinct voltage levels within the vehicle.Their function is crucial for achieving efficient power distribution and management throughout the vehicle's electrical architecture.In particular, the harness system assumes a critical role in enhancing safety management and overall system operation.By providing a structured and organized layout for the complex network of electrical connections within the vehicle, the harness system minimizes the risks associated with short circuits, electrical interference, and other potential hazards.This methodical approach simplifies troubleshooting, maintenance, and repair procedures, contributing to a more reliable and easily manageable vehicle electrical system.For the specific purpose of achieving the functionality of the buck converter, consider the following specifications: Input Voltage: 72V Output Voltage: 12V Cost: Approximately 400/-Rs (Indian Rupees) Application: Harness System The buck converter, designed to reduce the input voltage from 72V to 12V, is strategically employed to provide power to various components within the harness system.Its primary function of voltage transformation is crucial in delivering the correct power supply to components demanding a lower voltage level.This ensures that the vehicle's electrical systems operate optimally and safely, promoting efficient functionality across different vehicle elements.

Boost converter configurations:
A Boost Converter, often referred to as a step-up converter, is an electronic device designed to elevate the input voltage to a higher output voltage level.This component finds widespread use in scenarios where the desired output voltage surpasses the available input voltage.A common application is battery charging, particularly when the battery requires a voltage higher than that of the input source.Here are the specific details and specifications for the mentioned Boost Converter: Input Voltage: 12V Output Voltage: 72V Application: Battery Charging In the described configuration, the Boost Converter performs the essential task of taking a 12V input voltage and elevating it to 72V, a level that is well-suited for charging batteries with higher voltage requirements.This converter's function becomes pivotal in charging electric vehicle batteries, as these batteries often demand voltage levels beyond what is typically available from the vehicle's power source.Through this voltage boosting process, the converter ensures that the battery is supplied with the necessary charging voltage, facilitating efficient recharging while also maintaining optimal voltage levels for the battery's health and overall performance.To summarize, the specified Boost Converter plays a critical and indispensable role in the battery charging procedure, enabling efficient and controlled charging for high-voltage batteries used in various applications, including electric vehicles.

Conclusion
The selection of a chassis for a solar-powered electric vehicle entails a comprehensive evaluation of factors such as material selection, structural integrity, weight optimization, battery positioning, aerodynamics, safety considerations, space utilization, manufacturability, and integration with the suspension system.Alongside these, key aspects like the chassis type, dimensions, adherence to safety standards, and cost-effectiveness are crucial in achieving a well-balanced and efficient design for the electric vehicle.
Shifting our focus to the braking systems, solar-powered electric vehicles employ a variety of brake types, ranging from conventional drum brakes to more advanced disc brakes.Each brake type comes with distinct mechanisms and advantages, influencing the overall braking performance of the vehicle.Furthermore, the incorporation of solar panels, solar charge controllers, and Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) batteries significantly impacts the vehicle's overall efficiency, range, and sustainability.The choice between DC and AC charging systems, as well as the utilization of Permanent Magnet Brushless DC (PM BLDC) motors, further shapes the vehicle's performance and charging characteristics.
In the rapidly evolving field of electric vehicle technology, constant advancements in materials, components, and control systems continually enhance efficiency, power management, and the overall driving experience.As these technologies continue to mature and integrate, the landscape of solar-powered electric vehicles is set to offer increased efficiency, reduced environmental impact, and improved user convenience.This, in turn, promises a promising and sustainable future for electric mobility.

RESULT
In summary, the selection of a chassis for a solar-powered EV requires a comprehensive evaluation of factors such as material options, structural integrity, weight optimization, battery integration, aerodynamics, safety protocols, space utilization, manufacturability, and suspension compatibility.Key aspects including chassis type, dimensions, adherence to safety standards, and cost-effectiveness play a crucial role in designing a well-balanced and efficient electric vehicle.
Shifting the focus to braking systems, solar-powered EVs utilize diverse types of brakes, including hydraulic oil brakes.These can be further categorized into drum brakes and disc brakes, each employing distinct techniques.Drum brakes employ friction linings against the interior of drums, while disc brakes, being more advanced, generate braking force through hydraulic pressure acting on pistons.As we delve deeper, the integration of solar panels and advanced components like Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) and Field-Oriented Control (FOC) controllers significantly impact the performance and efficiency of the EV.Solar panels, exemplified by the EXIDE Polycrystalline panel, harness light energy through interconnected cells, managed by solar charge controllers to optimize battery charging.
The Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) battery, a pivotal component in EVs, boasts impressive specifications such as high voltage, current capacity, and rapid charging capabilities.Charging systems, both DC and AC, come with various configurations and charging times, influenced by factors like the EV model and battery capacity.
The prominence of Permanent Magnet Brushless DC (PM BLDC) motors in EVs is attributed to their exceptional attributes, including torque-speed characteristics, efficiency, and responsiveness.These motors, coupled with gearboxes, ensure optimal power transfer and enhance the overall performance of the vehicle.Collectively, these elements contribute to the rise of efficient, sustainable, and high-performance solar-powered electric vehicles, poised to shape the future of transportation.

Figure: 1 .
Figure:1.Fabrication Body of 4 wheeler 4.1.3.BRAKES USED IN SOLARPOWERED ELECTRIC VEHICLE 4.1.1.Solar-powered electric vehicles incorporate a range of braking systems to ensure effective braking operations.One prevalent type is the oil brake, commonly employed in passenger cars, which employs hydraulic fluid to engage the braking mechanism.Within this category, oil brakes can be further classified into drum brakes and disc brakes, each employing distinct techniques for braking functionality.

Figure: 8
Figure:8 Smart Battery Management Converter

4. 5 . 1 .Figure: 9
Figure:9 Smart Battery Charging System 4.7.Motor selection:The increasing adoption of Permanent Magnet Brushless DC (PM BLDC) motors in electric vehicles (EVs) is driven by their remarkable torque-speed characteristics, outstanding efficiency, and rapid responsiveness, particularly at higher speeds.These motors also offer the advantage of compact size, easy speed control, and a brushless design, which contributes to their popularity.Their versatility spans a wide range of speeds, and their low maintenance requirements add to their appeal.Often coupled with gearboxes through mechanical connections, these motors facilitate efficient power transmission and allow for adjustments in gear ratios.This integration ensures optimal delivery of torque and speed to the wheels, ultimately enhancing the overall performance of the electric vehicle.