Geospatial and Temporal Analysis of Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) as Climate Mitigation Tool in Glamping Site in Cimahi North, West Java, Indonesia

Climate change on a global scale is an urgent matter with far-reaching consequences, making tourism among the most susceptible sectors to the effects of changing climate patterns. Ensuring human comfort in environments with high outdoor activity demands is a crucial aspect of design. This is particularly relevant for nature-based accommodations, often found in rural, mountainous, or coastal areas, catering to urban residents seeking recreational experiences. This study aims to explore the utilization of the Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) in both geospatial and temporal context in glamping site in Cimahi North, Indonesia, as a strategy for climate mitigation. Temporal microclimate assessment was first conducted through temporal thermal comfort analysis, using criteria such as air temperature (Ta) and relative humidity (RH), followed by geospatial analysis (Hotspot Analysis) in GIS to put the THI into spatial context. Result indicates that there are variations in daily THI assessment, where both temperature and humidity play important role in determining the thermal comfort of glamping clients. Subsequently, the study introduces strategies for climate mitigation in the planning of glamping tourism sites. The practical implications of this research lie in its potential to enhance the planning of nature-based tourism sites, particularly those dedicated to glamping experiences.


Introduction
Climate change and the pandemic of Covid-19 is an urgent worldwide concern that has implications for numerous fields, including the tourism sector.Nonetheless, the revival of the tourism sector has attained 80% of its pre-pandemic levels in the initial quarter of 2023 and is anticipated to increase to around 95% of the pre-pandemic levels by the conclusion of 2023 [1].Among various forms of tourism, empirical reports indicate that nature-based tourism (NBT) and recreation recovered relatively faster compared to conventional forms of hospitality [2,3].NBT is defined as forms of tourism that leverages natural resources in a wild or undeveloped form, with the purpose of deriving pleasure from undeveloped natural landscape or wildlife while playing pivotal role in poverty reduction and promote environmental sustainability [4,5].
Glamping is a portmanteau of "glamorous" and camping", described as niche form of camping that combines comfort and respect for the environment which was introduced in various types of semipermanent and permanent structures such as villas, treehouses, safari, and ecolodges [6][7][8].The progressive advancements in new media technology have facilitated the convergence of social media platforms' openness and the sharing of travel experiences, creating a constructive content in relation of glamping experience itself, therefore allowing glamping's popularity to grow exponentially [9].The typical clientele of glamping primarily consists of younger and well-educated families, who are permanently employed as well as possessing relatively higher income [7].Glamping popularity had been growing exponentially both during and post-pandemic because travelers had to factored in both perceived and actual health risks, therefore resulting their inclination to maintain safe distance while visiting natural spaces and engaging in outdoor recreation intended for multi-generational clientele [10][11][12].Glamping has also become a key draw in the tourism industry in Indonesia, particularly after the pandemic.This sector has shown rapid expansion in recent years.The expansion of this industry can be observed, especially through social media, even though studies that can estimate an actual growth rate are still lacking.
Camping in general, as well as glamping specifically, is among the most susceptible industries to the effects of climate change including shifting weather patterns and extreme weather events [2,13] for it significantly influence the duration and comfort of NBT and recreation seasons, destination choice, and the willingness to pay [14][15][16][17].
The urgency of climate mitigation in the glamping sector stems from its growing popularity, which intertwines luxury and human enjoyment of nature, as it may lead to habitat degradation, ecosystem disruption, and heightened carbon emissions [18].Climate change exerts a continuous influence on camping, wherein a destination's resources encompass various weather variables encountered by tourists during their visitation [2].It is imperative for destination managers to understand climate change and how it affects NBT, for it will allow the discovery of both risks and opportunities that may lead to changes in tourism demand patterns such as ecological effects, societal-driven institutional effects (holiday), and future visitor flow, therefore allowing them to benefit from cost savings through energy efficiency, new commercial opportunities, and improved relations with costumers [14,[19][20][21].
Climate, which was defined as the set of meteorological conditions characteristic set for a long period of time, can be differentiated into macroclimate and microclimate based on the scope of its area [22].The application of microclimate data has the potential to create thermally comfortable conditions in response to challenges posed by global warming and climate change caused by geographic factors [23][24][25].Previous research indicated that microclimate affects human comfort and the utilization of outdoor spaces [26,27].Thermally comfortable conditions can be assessed using various methods, namely Predicted Mean Vote (PMV), Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD), and Temperature-Humidity Index (THI).Both PMV and PPD are mainly utilized in building design context for they provide a comprehensive assessment of thermal comfort in indoor environment [28,29].
On the other hand, THI combines temperature and humidity values to assess discomfort due to heat and humidity.Previous research [30][31][32] used THI to gauge heat stress mainly in agricultural context, namely in urban and farm systems.The concept of THI shows great potential in providing a versatile method for measuring fluctuations in stress levels and replicating the thermal sensations of a human.In recent times, THI has been applied to determine the appropriateness of the climate, alongside considerations of landscape aesthetics and recreational utilization, which helps in evaluating the recreational services available on the Tibetan Plateau [33].This representation of the bioclimatic conditions in the region as they evolve over time continues to be the most employed bioclimate index, particularly in tropical outdoor settings [34].Nevertheless, research and utilization of THI to aid the tourism industry, especially in NBT sectors such as camping or glamping are currently underexplored.
Therefore, this research aims to explore the utilization of THI in both geospatial and temporal context in North Cimahi (Cimahi North), Indonesia, as a strategy for climate mitigation.It is imperative to ensure the long-term sustainability of the glamping industry and preserve the very environment that attracts tourists.Emphasizing climate mitigation in the glamping sector is not only a necessity to safeguard our planet but also a strategic move to maintain its allure for generations to come.The utilization of THI in NBT context represents a novel and innovative approach to enhancing the visitor experience and promoting sustainable tourism practices.Aside from allowing NBT managers to understand how temperature and humidity affect human activities and its impacts on glamping tourism, this research may answer to the problem of the underutilization and challenges of implementing THI for enhancing tourist experiences and sustainable tourism practices in especially in tropical destinations such as Indonesia.

Study Area
North Cimahi (from this point shall be described as North Cimahi) is situated in Cimahi Regency (administrative map can be observed in Figure 1 where North Cimahi is colored orange), specifically in the mountainous region of West Java, approximately 1,230 meters above sea level.Due to its higher elevation, North Cimahi enjoys a cooler (averaging 23.5˚C) and more temperate climate compared to many other parts of Indonesia.Due to its favorable climate and picturesque surroundings, North Cimahi has become a popular destination for tourists seeking a respite from the heat of the lowlands.The area is known for its beautiful landscapes, tea plantations, and various outdoor activities such as trekking and birdwatching.North Cimahi subdistrict is home to various glamping destinations.Among the earliest is Kalasenja Glamping, established in 2021, as a part of tourism destination called Alam Wisata Cimahi which in turn was founded in 2009.The absolute location of the Kalasenja glamping site is 6°48'14" south latitude, 107°35'5" east longitude and average altitude of 1,153 meters above sea level.This glamping site offered a wide range of facilities and activities to accommodate the needs of both the younger generation and family tourists, such as mini zoo and playground for children, fishing pond and walking track for the older clientele, as well as archery, bonfire, and barbeque dinner to accommodate family gatherings.Kalasenja glamping site is part of the bigger NBT site, called 'Alam Wisata Cimahi', with total area of 0.11 hectares.The glamping site offers six units of available tents, accommodating a total of 24 visitors at a time with layout that can be observed in Figure 3.The occupancy rate of Kalasenja Glamping fluctuates based on the days of the week with the average of 60-80% on weekdays and reaching 100% capacity on weekends.

Data Summary
Illustrations of temperature and humidity data used for Kalasenja glamping site in North Cimahi include monthly average diurnal range of air temperature and comparison of dry bulb temperature to relative humidity, as illustrated in Figure 4 and Figure 5, as well as hourly dry bulb temperature illustrated in Figure 6.The data were downloaded using Climate Consultant software from the closest meteorological station from the research area boundaries (Bandung-Husein Sastranegara International Airport) which was operated by the Meteorological, Climatological, and Geophysical Agency (Badan Meteorologi, Klimatologi, dan Geofisika/BMKG).The collected temperature data includes near-surface temperature data (Ta), which refers to the atmospheric temperature 1.5m-2m above surfaces.Ta consisted of minimum temperature (Tmin) and maximum temperature (Tmax) varying across space and time due to various factors, such as solar radiation, wind speed, land cover, cloud cover, and vegetation phenology [36].Supplemental temperature data includes diurnal temperature, dry bulb comparison to humidity, and the 3D chart of hourly dry bulb temperature.Spatial distribution of Ta is obtained through Global Daily Near Surface Air Temperature Dataset at 1-km resolution.The dataset was projected to EPSG 4326 before being ingested to Google Earth Engine, and it was able to effectively capture the spatial variation under clear physical meanings [36].

Research Framework
Human thermal comfort in glamping using THI involves several steps to assess the thermal environment and its impact on guests.First, both meteorological data and site-specific information were collected.Second, temporal THI analysis was conducted, and the formula should yield a numerical value representing the thermal comfort index.The result of temporal analysis is interpreted through the classification of comfort threshold.Lastly, geospatial analysis was conducted to further understand how the THI value is differentiated based on the outdoor-indoor environment for it is imperative to identify areas with potential heat stress.The result of both the temporal and geospatial analysis is then discussed and was used as the foundation of mitigation strategies.The framework of the research is illustrated in Figure 8.

Thermal Comfort Measurement using THI
Thermal comfort in Kalasenja glamping site is measured using temperature-humidity index (THI) which was tabulated as numbers ranging from 60 to 100 to indicate the apparent temperature that a person would feel relative to a normal humidity corresponding to a dewpoint of 14 o Celsius [27].Humidity is such an important factor in identifying thermal discomfort in human being for heat stress extremes is more often coincide with extreme values of humidity rather than temperature [37][38][39].Previous research [40] investigates the influence of different vegetation types and layouts on microclimate and air quality in Nanjing, China, using green indices and meteorological parameters namely air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and thermal comfort indices such as mean radiant temperature and predicted mean vote.The formula to calculate THI can be observed in IOP Publishing doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1264/1/0120248 Equation (1) while its classification in correspondence to its bioclimatic condition [41,42] is described in Table 1.Tx represents air temperature and U represents humidity.The resulting THI value gives an indication of how the combination of temperature and humidity affects human comfort.Different THI ranges are often associated with different levels of discomfort, ranging from mild to extreme. (°) =   − (0.55 − 0.0055)  (  − 14.5) (1) THI value is then mapped using Hotspot Analysis.Hotspot analysis helps identify areas with statistically significant high or low values of THI, which can be valuable for understanding spatial patterns related to thermal comfort.Geographic data (e.g., shapefiles) was loaded into GIS software with THI values and a common identifier that was linked into the geographic data.

3.
Result and Analysis

Spatial Distribution
Due to limitation in spatial dataset (resolution limited to 1 km) the Tmax and Tmin was first distributed in the scale of 1:200,000.The Ta distribution indicates that North Cimahi has a relatively lower temperature than the surrounding area (Cimahi City), with the range of Tmax of 30˚ (illustrated in Figure 9) and Tmin of 18˚ (illustrated in Figure 10).This characteristic was consistent with data obtained from BMKG and the temperature difference can be attributed to difference in microclimate, namely higher elevation compared to the rest of the city.
Following Ta distribution in Cimahi, THI value of Kalasenja Glamping Site was calculated.By inserting the existing temperature and humidity data in equation ( 1), THI value and its classification of bioclimatic condition can be observed in Table 2.After the amount of THI and its spatial attribute is attained, the data was put into spatial context using Hotspot Analysis.THI values indicate that biothermal comfort was achieved during the morning hours in both indoor and outdoor environment.There were no significant differences in THI value from afternoon all the way through the night, averaging from 23.35• indoor and 21.39• outdoor.Result in Figure 11 shows that both temperature and humidity affect the outcome of thermal comfort in Kalasenja Glamping site.Optimum thermal comfort can only be obtained when the temperature of glamping site is at Tmin, while the humidity is hovering just above average.Heightened temperature and humidity inside the camping tent, compared to outdoor environment, can be attributed to various factors stemming from the tent's structural design limitations and human activities therefore causing potential impediments to effective ventilation.Air confinement within the camping tents, multiplied with bodily heat emissions as well as exhalations, fostered the accumulation IOP Publishing doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1264/1/01202410 of moisture and thermal energy.Additionally, proximity to both natural and human-made body of water (±70m to a swimming pool and ±160m to a lake) also contribute to humidity increase onsite.Therefore, it can be concluded that the findings are consistent with previous research [37][38][39] where thermal discomfort was not only caused by temperature but also affected by humidity.

Discussion & Climate Mitigation Strategies in Glamping Sites
As proven by previous research [43], tourism is especially susceptible to climate change due to its dependence on natural resources and weather conditions.Initial research primarily aimed to grasp the effects of climate change on tourism and its role in adaptation and mitigation.However, recent studies have pivoted towards acknowledging the significance of lessening the environmental impact of tourism-related activities.Despite being a contributor to these changes, the tourism industry can actively participate in mitigation efforts.The imperative for urgent mitigation arises from the tourism sector's increasing role in global climate change [44][45][46].
Analysis results indicate THI supported a higher comfort sensation in forest stands than in open fields during the assessed period and in the central part of the day.Overall, the ecosystem services provided by forests can contribute to attenuating the negative effects of global change and improve the wellbeing of people.This is especially relevant in the tourism and recreation sectors since climate is an important factor in choosing destination and type of vacation and travel experiences [47].
One of the repercussions of climate change in tourism-related activities, especially in naturebased tourism such as camping and glamping, is the discomfort tourists encounter due to thermal conditions at these destinations.Rising apprehension surrounds the issue of heat stress at camping and glamping destinations in Southeast Asia, owing to the region's tropical climate and rising temperatures.Camping and glamping have become popular and progressively favored outdoor activities in this region.However, heightened temperatures and increased humidity levels can lead to significant health risks, particularly related to heat stress.Heat stress occurs when the body's ability to regulate its internal temperature is hindered, leading to a range of symptoms ranging from heat exhaustion to heatstroke.
Enhancing the thermal comfort within glamping sites situated in hot and humid climates is vital to ensuring a favorable and pleasurable experience for visitors.Glamping, a concept that marries the luxurious amenities of a hotel with the natural ambience of camping, has gained popularity in recent times as a distinctive and immersive outdoor lodging option.Nevertheless, the warm and humid conditions prevalent in certain areas present a challenge in maintaining pleasant temperatures within glamping accommodations.To tackle this challenge, a range of strategies can be adopted to upgrade thermal comfort in glamping sites in regions with hot and humid climates like Indonesia.These strategies can be categorized into two groups: those with physical attributes and those without.Physical strategies are connected to the tangible features of the site, involving factors like the design and material of glamping units, their arrangement, surroundings, and the presence of vegetation or forest.Based on models, previous research [48] suggest that replacing 10% of agricultural land with forest would reduce the mean temperature by 0.9 •C.Aside from air quality control and protection from flooding and erosion, forests influence the micro-and macro-climate at the global and local scale.Its biophysical properties promote local climate stability by reducing extreme temperatures in all seasons and times of day [47].From the material aspect, water vapor transport is much lower for coated tent fabrics, and the heavier fabrics show a lower water vapor transport capacity than the lighter fabrics for consumer tents [49].The establishment of essential physical amenities and provisions to assist campers in effectively managing fluctuations in the Thermal Heat Index (THI) is of utmost importance.
Other physical measures include designing the glamping lodgings with adequate insulation and ventilation systems.By minimizing the movement of heat from the exterior to the interior, effective 1264 (2023) 012024 IOP Publishing doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1264/1/01202411 insulation can aid in controlling the temperature indoors.In addition to circulating fresh air and removing heat, ventilation systems can contribute to a more comfortable indoor climate.The development of heat and humidity in enclosed places is decreased by adequate ventilation.To lessen solar heat absorption within and around the glamping site, another tactic is to use natural shading and landscaping approaches.By strategically positioning trees, shrubs, and other vegetation to offer shade and block direct sunlight, this can be accomplished.Shaded spaces, cooling stations, and hydration stations could be included in the infrastructure and facilities that are necessary to help campers deal with changing THI values.It's also a good idea to avoid crowded glamping layouts that trap heat and humidity and leave enough space between tents to encourage airflow.Create covered spots all across the campground, such as gazebos, pavilions, or naturally occurring shade from trees, to protect campers from the sun's rays and to aid in their cooling.High THI values can be quickly alleviated by setting up cooling stations with misting systems, fans, or evaporative coolers, especially during the hottest times of the day.Hence, excessive dependence on artificial cooling methods, such as air conditioning devices, can be prevented.Furthermore, using reflecting surfaces and light-colored materials for the walls and roofing of the glamping lodgings can lessen heat absorption and increase thermal comfort.
In the case of the Kalasenja glamping site, Figure 12 illustrates the current layout of the site.To address the impacts of climate change in this location, it is advised that the insulation and ventilation be enhanced by changing the design and material of the glamping units, adding covered areas throughout the campground, such as gazebos, pavilions, or naturally occurring shade from trees, and that more awareness-raising and educational programs be offered to guests to encourage them to act on climate change.

Source: Analysis, 2023
Figure 12 Perspective of Kalasenja Glamping Area Meanwhile, non-physical strategies encompass considerations related to management, safety protocols, and sustainable practices.In light of the climate emergency, it is crucial for tourism destinations, including glamping sites, to actively explore every mitigation strategy, such as rapidly reducing carbon emissions within glamping sites.Destinations frequently have limited capacity to adapt to climate change and manage other climate-related risks, creating a triple challenge for them in the process of transforming their tourism systems.They must recognize the interconnected risks associated with low profitability, high carbon intensity, and climate change.These risks call for a fundamental shift in destination management approaches, moving away from a constant focus on increasing tourists' arrivals [45].
Effective managerial strategies have a pivotal role to play in lessening the impact of climate change within glamping locations.Those overseeing such sites have the opportunity to enforce policies and adopt measures that foster the responsible and eco-friendly use of resources, including energy and water.Moreover, raising awareness and educating visitors about the significance of climate action can motivate them to embrace sustainable practices while enjoying their time at the glamping site.Furthermore, embracing destination management strategies that emphasize quality over quantity also holds the potential to aid in climate mitigation at glamping sites.By focusing on safeguarding and enriching the natural surroundings and minimizing the carbon footprint of operations, these sites can make a meaningful contribution to the global endeavor of addressing climate change.

Conclusion
This research aims to explore the utilization of THI in both geospatial and temporal context in North Cimahi (Cimahi North), Indonesia, as a strategy for climate mitigation.It is imperative to ensure the long-term sustainability of the glamping industry and preserve the very environment that attracts tourists.Given the challenges posed by global warming and shifts in climate patterns, the utilization of the Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) in a geographical context proves to be highly advantageous.There remains a deficiency in prior studies concerning this aspect.This approach aids in shaping the design of pleasantly habitable glamping accommodations and informs decisions about the layout of the site.The present research has illustrated that, at the Kalasenja glamping location in Cimahi North, West Jave, THI values align with bioclimatic comfort during the initial hours, encompassing both indoor and outdoor environments.Nevertheless, starting from approximately 11 AM and persisting until 11 PM, the THI values indicate a lack of bioclimatic comfort.Notably, there is a consistent absence of notable fluctuations in the THI values-indoors, they average at 23.35, while outdoors, they average at 21.39-across the span from afternoon to early morning.
To improve this condition, a range of strategies were proposed for both physical and non-physical approaches to mitigate the climatic effects.The physical methods encompass potential enhancements in insulation and ventilation through alterations in the glamping units' design and materials, alongside the incorporation of naturally or manmade shaded spaces across the premises.Furthermore, the implementation of educational endeavors and campaigns geared towards guests could contribute to stimulating proactive actions in response to climate change.

Source: Cimahi City Government, 2023 Figure 1 .Figure 2 .
Figure 1.The Map of of Cimahi City, West Java As in other parts of the world, North Cimahi is also experiencing climate change.The air temperature rises and the increase in the frequency of extreme weather occurrences in the nearby areas

Figure 7 .
Figure 7. Hourly Average Dry Bulb Temperature and Humidity of Kalasenja Glamping Site

Figure 11 THI
Figure 11 THI Value Distribution, Morning -Average

Table 1 .
THI Values in Correspondance to Different Bioclimactic Conditions