Innovative Soil, Water and Plant Management Promoting Sustainable Agriculture and Environments :A Review

There is a lot of pressure on today’s agricultural producers to fulfill the increasing food needs brought on by a growing population and a shrinking supply of land and other resources. In order to meet this challenge, many people are using excessive amounts of fertilizers and other chemicals. The soil health, land quality, and environmental impacts have all suffered as a result of this intense agricultural production that disregards ecological sustainability. So, future attempts to feed the expanding population should strive for higher agricultural productivity within sustainable ecosystems. In this context, creative initiatives are required, since business-as-usual approaches lack the capacity to deal with these issues. Agricultural sustainability is defined, and various soil and crop management strategies that aim to maximize crop yield under environmentally sustainable conditions are discussed. These include, but are not limited to, nutrient management, site-specific nutrient management, fertility management, integrated soil-crop system management, sustainable water management, and water conservation. In addition, nutrient management, fertility management, and integrated soil-crop system management have been shown to improve crop yields. According to this analysis, a sustainable production system may be created by integrating the many initiatives found in SCMS practices with both immediate and long-term preventative actions. Reducing chemicals’ consumption, such as that of fertilizers and pesticides, with improvements in the agricultural input use efficiency might cut greenhouse gases emissions while safeguarding the environment. The future of humanity and Earth depends on the success of sustainable agriculture, which has promise if both rich and developing countries work together to pursue ‘our shared destiny’ in order to increase food production with little impact on the environment.


Introduction
Sustainable agriculture is a topic of tremendous interest and vigorous discussion in many sectors of the globe.The arguments originate mostly from various opinions as to what constitutes sustainable agriculture [1][2][3][4][5].Agriculture that is sustainable is described as a system that, "over the long term, enhances environmental quality and the resource base on which agriculture depends, provides for basic human food and fiber needs, is economically viable, and enhances the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole."This definition was written by the Sustainable Agriculture Working Group of the United Nations [1][2][3][4][5][6][7].From this remark, different classifications arose but the notion of agricultural sustainability remained the same.Also, A dedication to meeting the needs of humans for food and fiber while also working to improve the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole, both now and in the foreseeable future, is what is meant by the term "sustainable agriculture."As a direct consequence of this, there is not yet a condensed and generally accepted definition of what constitutes sustainable agriculture.This is due to the fact that sustainable agriculture is more often seen as a management philosophy rather than a method of operation [8], and as such, one's value system is related to their acceptance or rejection of any definition [9].Even though agriculturalists do not agree on the precise meaning of the word "sustainable agriculture," the vast majority of those who study the subject agree that the concept of sustainable agriculture is essential to the long-term health of our planet's biosphere and the ever-increasing human population that inhabits it.The concept known as the 'Triple Bottom Line (TBL)' is the foundation upon which sustainability is built.This concept considers the effects that changes in the environment have not only on society (people), but also on the planet and on economic value (profit).It is becoming more and more obvious that issues concerning people, profits, and the environment are intertwined (Figure 1) [7].Agriculture has evolved tremendously, particularly after the conclusion of World War II.As a result of technological advancements, automation, increasing chemical usage, specialization, and government policies that favoured maximal production, food and fiber output rose.Agriculture is very subject to climatic fluctuation and its associated consequences.Food security and preservation of sustainable ecological balance are key concerns for thinkers, academics, environmentalists and policy makers.To be really sustainable, agriculture must be seen as an eco-system in which all of its constituent partssoil, water, plants, environment, and living things-exist in peace and harmony, with one contributing to and benefiting from the other.The objective is to improve the quality of life and economic growth by addressing environmental concerns related to natural resource management, which will allow for sustained gains in agricultural production via more effective use of land and other resources.Modern irrigation systems, enhanced plant varieties, enhanced soil quality, and environmental preservation enabled by resource conservation technologies are all crucial to achieving sustainable agriculture and high levels of production [2].There have been substantial expenses associated with these shifts, despite the fact that they have had numerous beneficial consequences and decreased many dangers associated with farming.Topsoil depletion, groundwater pollution, The disappearance of family farms, the continued disdain for the living and working circumstances of farm workers, growing production costs, and the overall economic and social degeneration of rural regions are all key contributing causes.The concept of sustainable agriculture developed in response to mounting concerns about the impact of conventional agricultural practices on the environment [4].Therefore, this article review emerged with the purpose of the creative and optimum use of soil, water and crops management towards sustainable agriculture and a clean environment.

Sustainable Agriculture
The practice of farming that adheres to the tenets of ecology, which is the study of the relationships that exist between living things and the environments in which they live, is known as sustainable agriculture.It has been described as an integrated system of methods for the production of plants and animals, with a site-specific applicability that will last throughout the course of time.The notion of sustainable development of agriculture received tremendous relevance following Brundtlant Report in 1987.Tough its definition is little hazy, United States Department of Agriculture 2012 stated it -agriculture is basically about livestock and production of various crops having impact on environment‖.The essential principle underlying sustainable development of agriculture is to maintain balance between requirement of food and safeguarding the natural resources from dwindling resources and detrimental impacts.There are many more purposes linked with this sustainable strategy including decreased utilization of inorganic fertilizers, preservation of water resources, conservation of biodiversity, decreasing waste output etc. [10,11].Ecofriendly fertilizers have been known to boost the agricultural output together with the better condition of soil [12][13][14][15].To aid farmers financially, enabling them to use new methods and offering them better facilities to enhance their quality of life is also included in their aims of sustainable approach [16].Figure 2 depicts the main aspects of sustainable agriculture.Various agricultural methods may be done to make it better to a certain degree.

Figure 2.
Components of a sustainable agricultural system [17].

Methods for Implementing Eco-Friendly Agricultural Practices
The idea of sustainability in agricultural practices is multidimensional and encompasses a lot of varied components.Some of these features include the social (having a fair deal with its employees and a IOP Publishing doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1259/1/0120144 connection with the surrounding community that is mutually helpful) and economic , having a fair deal with its workers and a relationship that is mutually advantageous.(Fig. 3).To meet these standards, it is preferable to cooperate with nature than fight it.The following considerations must be considered before proceeding in this direction:  Erosion and other forms of land degradation should be avoided at all costs. Natural resources (including water, energy, soil, plants, animals, biodiversity, ecosystems, etc.) should be used sparingly and with care.More renewable and diverse resources (such as wind energy, solar energy, etc.) should be employed rather than total self-sufficiency in order to ensure long-term stability and productivity in agriculture.In the face of global agricultural consolidation and infrastructural expansion, farmers must ensure they can make a living off their land.Reduce, reuse, and recycle (the "3 R concept") should be prioritized.This will make farming not just possible in the long run, but also profitable.The old adage goes something like, "It's not waste until it's wasted." It's important to promote a diverse environment on and around the farm.Using crop rotation, intercropping, mixed cropping, and other forms of polyculture to reduce pest populations, planting trees around the farm (through agro-forestry practices) to serve as windbreaks and provide habitat for local birds (which can prey on insects that feed on crops), and encouraging and allowing the presence of natural predators that keep pest populations in check are all examples of polyculture.

The Idea of Farming in the Long Term
The techniques that are used in agriculture are the primary contributors to the total quantity of food that is produced and are the primary cause of the condition of our environment [19].It is unfortunate that the bulk of these techniques, such as expanding the use of inorganic fertilizers and other chemicals, which ensure larger yields, are not methods that are good to the environment and are sustainable.This is one of the reasons why the gap between the production and consumption of the vast majority of agricultural goods has expanded at such a startling pace over the course of the previous decade and a half.Mineral fertilizers were used on a global scale at a volume of 188.54 million tonnes in 2019, representing a considerable increase of more than six times when compared to the 30.85 million tonnes utilized in 1961, which was the period before the Green Revolution.During this same span of time, the population of the globe rose from 3.1 billion to 7.7 billion people.The usage of nitrogen fertilizers alone rose by more than 250% between 1969 and 2019 [20], as seen in Figure 4. Examining the region-wide distribution of its average usage throughout the 2002-2019 period, one finds that Asia accounted for 59.9%, the United States for 21.2%, Europe for 14%, and Africa for only 3.3%.Figure 5.This chart illustrates the pattern of growth in the use of pesticides and the many subgroups of pesticides around the globe from 1990 to 2018, as was said before, herbicides account for the majority of this growth.According to the numbers provided by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), a little more than half (53%) of the 4.2 million tonnes of pesticides used annually in 2019 were herbicides.This was followed by fungicides and bactericides (23%) and insecticides (17%).As of 2019, the top five nations that made use of pesticides were China, the United States, Brazil, and Argentina.The former Soviet Union rounded out the list [20].The United States, China, France, and India are the top importers, whereas France, Germany, Poland, Spain, and the United Kingdom are the top exporters of pesticides.In terms of quantity, Brazil imports more pesticides than any other country [21].This wasteful use of agricultural inputs is one of the greatest threats to our planet.The present situation necessitates not just an increase in agricultural output, but a method of doing so that is environmentally, economically, and socially sustainable.Researchers need to put up their full efforts to find novel approaches to sustaining agricultural yield [22].However, a lack of consensus about the basic ideas of agricultural sustainability is a major barrier to long-term development focused on reducing the negative impacts of certain farming methods on ecosystems, communities, and economies [23].Anthropogenic interruptions are leading to rises in developing ecological tremors [24], despite the fact that the notion of sustainability has evolved from a conception to the enhancement of analytical instruments.One of the ultimate aims is long-term sustainability, which boosts agricultural systems' productivity while lowering risks to people and the environment [25,26].That resources shouldn't be consumed at rates greater than the Earth's power to replace them is central to the sustainability notion, as stated by Godfray et al. [27].Kesavan and Swaminathan [28] made a similar point, arguing that "agricultural sustainability" means keeping agricultural output stable in terms of both quantity and quality over time.
Agricultural sustainability is focused on the long-term achievement of a wide range of goals.Sustainable agriculture, in this sense, is the study of cultivating plants in ways that maximize human well-being and resource efficiency without negatively impacting the surrounding ecosystem.(Figure 6).Not only should they be beneficial to humans, but to other forms of life as well [23].The concepts of resilience (the ability of a system to withstand stresses and shocks), persistency (the ability to remain effective for long periods of time), and a range of socio-economic and environmentally friendly returns are all basic to the concept of sustainability [29].Resilience refers to the capability of a system to resist stressors and shocks.According to the definition provided by Tilman et al. [19], sustainable agriculture is defined as "efforts to meet societal needs for food, fiber, shelter, and other products in ways that minimise adverse effects on the environment, while simultaneously maximising economic returns to farmers." Figure 6.Comparisons between inputs and outcomes in terms of nutrients.This number was taken from [30,31].
Due to expanding populations, resource-poor nations have a pressing need to boost crop output, calling into question the very definition of agricultural sustainability [32].Improvements in (i) the quality and quantity of fresh water resources on farms (ii) the income of households through increased production, trading carbon credits, off-farm employment, and value addition of farm produce, (iii) the availability of educational opportunities, especially for women, and (vi) the protection of natural resources.Pretty [29] presents a more in-depth study of the notion of sustainable agriculture by identifying its primary characteristics, some of which include the inclusion of ecological and biological processes like nitrogen cycling.
There is a great deal of difficulty in trying to foresee changes in agricultural systems while also taking into account a wide range of interdependent environmental and socioeconomic elements [33].Long-term global agricultural sustainability is difficult to attain due to agro-ecological limits, which is challenged by maintaining global food security amid fast climatic change.As a result, it is essential to have a solid grasp on the intricate dynamics of the occurrence of many abiotic stressors and the predominating strategies by which plants withstand, avoid, or escape such severe climatic circumstances [34].No one solution exists that can entirely alleviate the danger posed by such severe environmental circumstances and the problems of feeding the fast rising population, thus substantial attention must be made by all sectors of the community.Because many of its parts interact with one another and often dispute, agricultural sustainability is also challenging to attain.The efficient utilization of nutrients is now understood to be crucial to agricultural sustainability [35].The possibility that a shift toward sustainable agriculture might have unanticipated repercussions is, despite this, a significant factor to take into account.For instance, individuals who do not have access to feed may be forced to sell their cattle if the area is not permitted to be used for grazing due to the need for rehabilitation, and if new lands have to be brought under cultivation, it is probable that the additional labor would fall on the shoulders of women [29].

The Role of Soil Management in Sustainable Agriculture
Soil management strategies are essential for optimizing agricultural commodity output and are also vital for reducing the rising environmental contamination [36].This has been known for some time by agricultural experts.Protecting soil from erosion (which causes land scarcity) is crucial, but so is adopting methods that prevent soil pollution and deterioration.
In semiarid and tropical areas, where agronomic inputs are low and plant cover is inadequate, soil erosion and land degradation pose serious challenges to ecosystem services and agricultural output [37,38].Water and wind erosion are major factors in the degradation of exposed soil surface structure, leading to the loss of topsoil and a decline in soil fertility and agricultural sustainability [37].Recent studies have shown that the great increase in global GDP by 2050 will continue to cause land degradation [39], so achieving future food security will require sustainable soil management through efficient management of nutrients and suitable conservation practices for soil [40].Since soil resources are nonrenewable, we urgently require multifaceted research to avoid their irreversible depletion due to erosion or contamination.
Soil is an essential part of terrestrial ecosystems and provides most species with the nutrients they need to survive [39].Soil organic matter is intimately connected to several soil qualities important to ecosystem functioning [36], making SOC management crucial.The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which in turn influences the global carbon cycle and climate change, is sensitive to even tiny shifts in this massive C store.For instance, it is believed that there is 700 Pg of organic C stored in the top 30 centimeters of soil, which is twice as much C as there is in the atmosphere as CO2.The global C cycle and climate change are both aided and hindered by the vast C store in soils [41].Soil carbon sequestration is a pressing issue that may be addressed by the implementation of sustainable crop management systems (SCMS), as will be discussed more below.The amount of soil organic carbon (SOC) may be increased in two ways: (i) by increasing the transformation of photosynthates to soil organic matter by boosting'photosynthetic capacity, and (ii) by lowering the pace at which organic matter in the soil is degraded.Both of these methods are described in detail in the following paragraphs [42,43], which suggests that subsoils have a better potential for increasing the C storage.However, the underlying processes are not well known.In order to increase C sequestration and decrease GHG emissions, for instance, scientists and policymakers have started to pay more attention to the practice of applying biochar to soils as a novel soil management strategy [44].To this end, it is important to take advantage of efforts to breed plants with widely dispersed and deeply penetrating root systems.Therefore, a comprehensive knowledge of root architecture is essential for breeding programs [45].
The study of soil microorganisms and their interactions with roots and soil fertility, which is leading to a clearer knowledge of these processes and ecology for innovative practical applications, are two examples of molecular biology methods that are currently being used to the study of soil microorganisms [36,46].This taxonomic and functional variety of soil microorganisms (bacteria, fungus, and archaea) may be recognized with the help of a rapidly expanding corpus of sequencing information for genes encoding biological activities connected with soil processes [47].
It is impossible for a single discipline to properly address many of the difficulties surrounding the sustainability of soil since these challenges are diverse and extensive, thus, a multidisciplinary study is needed [48].In this paper, we provide a comprehensive framework for developing an interdisciplinary perspective on sustainable soil use and management.This framework is based on a prior structure that merged disciplinary barriers for another subject [49].(Fig. 3).In this paper, we claim that five of the most significant problems stem from soil science and are connected to at least one other area of study.
The issues themselves are connected to one another as well.Consider the example of management and behaviour, which is deeply intertwined with both the field of soil science and the field of social science.Simultaneously, both the fertility of the soil and the pollution of the soil are factors, which have intimate ties to the fields of agronomy and environmental science, respectively.Another example is carbon in the soil, also known as soil organic matter, which influences soil biodiversity, which is connected to ecology, as well as soil fertility, which is related to agronomy.Carbon is directly tied to both the field of soil science and the field of climate science.The network that is shown in Figure 7 may be thought of as an advanced six-disciplinary system that has the potential to be exploited for the purpose of exploring the long-term viability of soil.

Methods for Getting the Most Out of Sustainable Agriculture
Changing from crisis-driven solutions to long-term mitigation measures is necessary to make ecosystems more resilient to the projected pressures in the future [51].In order to raise awareness not just among agricultural scientists but also among farmers, who may actually modify these terms to achieve their aims, a number of new ones have been added throughout time.The most prevalent words and their influence on agricultural and environmental sustainability are discussed below.

Strategies for Crop Management and Breeding
Traditional crop husbandry is seen as both the art and the science of producing crops with the goal of giving useful agricultural items to the customer at reasonable prices while yet allowing the producer to make a satisfactory amount of profit [52].Farmers face challenging conditions and must infer courses of action based on their knowledge of an interconnected web of social, economic, and technological factors.Unfortunately, stagnating yield potential is a key impediment in agricultural sustainability, while intensive efforts are necessary to raise the prospective output of the primary food crops [19].Two of the most important areas that might most effectively ameliorate food insecurity and environmental issues under the 2050 scenario are more resilience in management techniques and breeding projects that aim to improve yield potentials [53].Recent literature [34] has addressed in depth a complementary strategy for developing resistance to several stressors in important crops.The use of genetic and agricultural biotechnology on existing crop plants in order to improve those plants' performance in a range of tough environments is something that, despite the fact that it is still in its infancy stage, is already underway, such as drought, soil acidity, salt, and temperature stress, is also essential.This field of research is known as agricultural biotechnology.
Because of the advancements that have been made in genetics and agricultural physiology, we now have access to more specific tactics for selecting across attributes, which is excellent news.It is not difficult to develop new varieties of crops that are able to survive under adverse environments [27].Giving careful respect to the concerns of certain people (mainly those residing in industrialized nations) over their potential to negatively influence public health, transgenic plants can now be utilized for non-dietary uses [54].Taking these measures will lighten the pressure on farmland, making more of it accessible for growing food.However, if development is to restart [54], this will provide scientists enough time to conduct extensive bio-safety testing regimens to evaluate the hazards posed by these transgenic plants.

Methods for Managing Soil and Crops
Scientists have devised and implemented a number of SCMSs and other mitigation strategies to raise public consciousness about the importance of making efficient use of scarce resources.All of these SCMSs use balanced nutrient management to boost crop yield and decrease land degradation by enhancing the soil's biological, physical, chemical, and hydrological features [55].Figure 3 demonstrates how these SCMSs achieve this nutritional balance by adherence to two fundamental principles: (1) congruence between input amount and crop need, and (2) synchronization of application timing with crop development.These SCMSs have the potential to improve agricultural production while also preserving the natural environment and the soil [56,57].The use of farmyard manures, natural and mineral fertilizers, farm wastes, crop residues, agroforestry, soil tillage, intercropping, crop rotation, fallows, irrigation, and drainage are some of the ways that these SCMSs may safeguard the available plant nutrients and water [52,58,59].Incorporating fertilizer at depths below the ground surface, adding urease inhibitors, or applying coated urea are all examples of novel ways that are part of SCMSs, as stated by Zhang et al. [60].These adjustments may encourage farmers to think about the long-term benefits of environmentally friendly measures in addition to the short-term gains in production.
Improving the efficiency with which nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are used has become an important goal in the fight against environmental degradation worldwide [53].Increases in yield would not have been feasible without the usage of synthetic fertilizers.However, some of the N and P fertilizers applied aren't used by the crop and are lost to the environment, leading to decreased efficiency in fertilizer consumption and increased pollution, especially in quickly growing nations [57].For instance, from 1996 to 2005 in China, N and P fertilizer consumption grew dramatically, on average by 51% per year, but cereal yields increased by just 10% [60].Without an equal rise in yields, this massive increase in fertilizer inputs raises major environmental contamination problems [57,61].
Adopting optimal SCMS methods, managing the major N and P loss routes, and enhancing the efficacy of agricultural extension services can help create a better N and P balance without compromising crop yields and greatly decreasing environmental risk [62].Wheat plants can produce 39% more grain while emitting 21% less greenhouse gases with enhanced SCMS methods [56], thanks to the existence of a mechanical link between grain output and GHGs emissions.Soil quality, C sequestration, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and grain production can all be improved by switching to organic fertilizers from inorganic ones and employing appropriate management options such integrating plant residues or using zero-tillage or limited tillage [52,63].
Because poor soil fertility is a key factor in reducing crop yield, the incorporation of legumes into cropping systems has been shown to boost the physico-chemical-biological properties of the soil as well as its fertility.This is particularly essential because of the importance of maximizing crop yield.(Fig. 8).It is important to continue researching and perfecting legume-intercropping systems because of the good effects they have on the availability of soil nutrients and the efficiency with which they are used.It has been shown that planting legumes causes significant changes to occur in a number of different chemical parameters of the soil.Some of these characteristics include total nitrogen (N), pH, and organic carbon [65].
In addition, the cultivation of legumes may have an effect on the chemistry of the soil as well as the fertility of semiarid environments [66].Soil organic carbon, bioavailable phosphorus, and total nitrogen were all significantly greater when these legumes were present relative to a weedy fallow [66].A difference in carbon sequestration rate of 184 kg ha-1 yr-1 was seen between intercropping (maize with wheat or faba bean) and single cropping (maize, wheat, and faba bean).In addition, the N sequestration rate was found to be 4510 kg N ha-1 yr-1 higher in intercropped systems compared to sole crop systems based on the soil organic N content in the top 20 cm [67].Bulk density, cone penetrometer resistance, saturated hydraulic conductivity, and cracking clay were all found to be enhanced by the majority of legumes [68].In addition, macro-and micro-aggregate proportions were raised by 52% and 111%, respectively, under the legume intercropping system compared to solo crops [69].Soil erosion is also affected by this method of farming [70].For instance, sorghum-cowpea intercropping decreased soil loss by 50%, compared to sorghum alone, and by 20-30% compared to cowpea alone [70].Moreover, the integration of legumes such as faba bean (Vicia faba) [71], Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) [72,73], soybean (G.max) [74].the effect on the biological activity of the soil, particularly as a result of changes in the populations of microorganisms [75].Soil biological activities, such as those associated with arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM), are altered by this integration, as are the numbers of plant-parasitic nematodes [76] and the numbers of beneficial bacteria in the rhizosphere [77].In the field, N is available from legume crops [78] thanks to the atmospheric N fiXed symbiotically when legumes interact with rhizobia (Rhizobium spp.) [79].Improve the N balance in deficient soils by crop production using renewable sources of N, such as legumes, which have long been recognized for their positive impacts in crop rotation and intercropping systems [80].

Nutrient Management
Since the goal of fertilizer management is to maximize fertilizer efficiency in order to increase crop output while minimizing environmental impact, it is one of the most difficult tasks farmers face [82].Nitrogen and phosphorus are the two most common contaminants introduced to and removed from fields through the use of fertilizer (both inorganic and organic) and other major sources of plant nutrition, such as effluent management on dairy farms [83].Pollution of the environment can occur if plants aren't able to use all of the available nutrients, notably nitrogen and phosphorus.Nutrient management is the art and science of combining tillage, irrigation, and conservation of soil and water.The goal of nutrient management is to optimize crop fertilizer usage efficiency, productivity, quality, and net profit while simultaneously decreasing the off-site flow of nutrients and having fewer negative impacts on the environment.[84].

Nutrient Management Plans
In order to help farmers make informed decisions about when and how much fertilizer to apply to their crops in response to real field conditions at a given site and time of year, SSNM offers producers with a set of principles, guidelines, tools, and techniques [85,86].In order to balance the demand and supply of nutrients depending on fluctuations in cycling via soil-plant systems, SSNM is described by Dobermann et al. [85] as a season-specific, site-specific approach to nutrient management.These SSNMs aim to take advantage of the following: (1) farm-specific within-season dynamics of crop N demand, (2) spatial variability of fields in terms of intrinsic nutrient availability, (3) seasonal and regional variations in environmental yield potential and crop nutrient demand, (4) site-specific cropping patterns and crop management strategies.

Managing Nutrients Integratedly
The use of a range of inorganic and organic fertilizers, in addition to bio-fertilizers, agricultural wastes, and other living components, in a way that enhances the efficiency with which fertiliser is used, resulting in greater crop yields and indirectly minimises the harm to the environment [30].The fundamental objective is to integrate conventional and cutting-edge practices of nutrient application to create ecologically and financially sustainable cropping systems that make efficient use of both organic and inorganic fertilizers [52,60].INM controls the flow of not just the three basic macronutrients (N, P, and K), but also additional macro and micronutrients, with the goal of nutrient cycling in which demand and supply are in perfect rhythm.(Figure 3).INM improves fertilizer usage efficiency by decreasing nutrient loss from runoff, leaching, volatilization, and immobilization.Key aspects of INM include (1) matching input amount with crop demand and (2) synchronization in terms of the time application with crop development, as stated by Zhang et al. [60] and Wu and Ma [31] (Figure 6).

Management of Fertility in the Soil
In order to maximise the agronomic use efficiency of applied fertilisers and increase crop yield, ISFM was defined as a soil fertility management strategy that prioritises the appropriate application of chemical fertilizers, organic manures, crop residues, and hardy germplasms, as well as the knowledge and ability to adapt these, practises to local conditions.This was done so that fertiliser applications would have the greatest possible impact on crop output and agronomic efficiency.ISFM also stresses the need of tailoring these procedures to specific regions [87,88].ISFM also places an emphasis on the ability to adapt these practices to local conditions in order to increase crop yield [63] shown the importance of crop residues and FYM (farm-yard manure) in increasing rice field fertility under ISFM.Organic manure and symbiotic biological N fixing by legumes have been shown to increase rice crop yields in comparison to inorganic fertilizers.Nhamo et al. [63] have proposed an original, new strategy to increase crop productivity by using several ISFM methods at different stages of development.ISFM has been shown to increase grain production and farmer revenue, just as it has elsewhere [88].Two or more crops may be grown in succession on the same plot of land at the same time [89].
Intercropping's ability to maximize yield in the face of scarce inputs like water, sunlight, and fertilizer is enormous when compared to that of monoculture [90].Because of the symbiotic relationship between legumes and rhizobia, soil quality is enhanced and organic carbon is accumulated, making legume intercropping a viable strategy for increasing crop diversity and eco-intensifying agricultural productivity [91].In addition, the combination of two or more crop species, such as cereals and legumes, that have different root systems and rhizosphere activities may result in improved soil cover and nutrient absorption.[92] (Fig. 9).Examples of popular intercropping combinations in cereallegume systems include maize (Zea mays) and soybeans (Glycine max) [74], maize (Zea mays) and pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan), maize (Zea mays) and groundnuts (Arachis hypogaea), maize (Zea mays) and cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata), maize (Ze Several variables, including appropriate cultivars, crop competitiveness, and planting ratio, affect the success of an intercropping system [92].

Figure 9.
Roots systems of intercropped legume and cereal with distinct investigated soil strata permitting complementarity while preventing root-root competitiveness [81].

Management of the Soil and Crop System
Zhang et al. [61] first presented this method, which centers on the following three ideas: Enhancing soil quality (i), using all available sources of nutrients, and matching nutrient availability to crop requirements (ii), and integrating nutrient and soil management methods with high-yield cropping systems (iii) are all important considerations.New approaches of ISSM, such as cultivating better varieties, site-specific agricultural practices, slowly releasing nitrogen amendments, efficient irrigation systems, crop rotation, etc., can increase crop productivity and fertilizer use efficiency even in countries where the N balance has already been achieved [96].
There are a variety of benefits to soil dynamics that may be attributed to using legumes in the cropping system.Intercropping facilitates interactions between legumes and non-legumes, such as the mixing of their respective microbial populations due to the near proximity of their roots.Within 28 days of planting, germs may spread from one plant's roots to another [97].The capacity to form symbiotic relationships with rhizobia and fiX atmospheric N in specialized structures (nodules) is a substantial benefit [98].When resources are few, such when soil nitrogen levels are low, legume roots respond by producing flavonoids.Intercrops of legumes and cereals release compounds that may influence the behavior of root-associated bacteria [99], serve as a chemo-attractant to bring compatible rhizobium to the root surface [100], and encourage rhizosphere-associated rhizobia to produce lipo-chitooligosacharide.The latter triggers a cascade of signals that controls the expression of symbiotic genes, which in turn transmits the signal mediated by rhizobia and kicks off the process of nodule formation [101].Then, the nodules that have been generated may have a beneficial effect on the rhizosphere N levels that will be partly accessible for cereals.(Fig. 10).Wheat's promotion of legume root exudates, including flavonol, isoflavone, chalcone, and hesperetin, has been found to boost nodulation biomass in faba bean and wheat intercropping compared to monocropping [102].
Figure 10.Mechanisms of rhizobial interaction with legumes and other plant species.Low nitrogen (N) levels cause legume roots to create fla-vonoids, which in turn increase Lipo chit oligosaccharide production by rhizosphere-associated rhizobia.(LCOs).These latter trigger the formation of a nodule, which boosts the plant's N levels and its ability to acquire resources, both of which have a positive effect on the plant's root growth.as a result affects plant development [81].

Mulching Technique Utilizing Ridges and Furrows
In dry and semiarid locations, the lack of water is the primary barrier to sustainable agricultural production [103].The RFMS is an advanced method of water conservation farming that is created to improve crop yields in rain-fed environments when water is limited.Before or just after planting, you may use this method to keep the topsoil wet by covering it with plastic film, crop straw, gravel sands, or pebbles.Increased water availability to crops may result from this method's potential to direct precipitation into furrows, slow the rate at which soil dries up, and improve water penetration deeper into the soil profile [104]..In addition to this, mulching may have a significant effect on the emission of greenhouse gases into the surrounding environment.Plastic mulching under RFMS is postulated to have the potential to operate as a physical barrier, therefore reducing the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and the carbon footprint of grain crops while simultaneously increasing grain production and the effectiveness of carbon emission reduction [103][104][105].However, there have been reports of results that contradict each other in other study [106,107].

Water Management Techniques
Water is the most important resource for agriculture's long-term growth, and increasing WUE is the biggest obstacle in the way of effective water management [108].In addition, the quantity of water available for agriculture is under intense pressure from both rising global temperatures and rising non-agricultural needs.Both the amount and quality of available water must correspond with the quantity and quality of water required by crops at an appropriate cost and with no detrimental effects on the environment [108].The enhanced effectiveness of micro-irrigations like drips and sprinklers has led to increased interest in them.Drip irrigation, for example, distributes water directly to the rooting zone of the plant, reducing surface evaporation and increasing agricultural yield and WUE by at least 50% [109].In addition to lowering salinity, drip irrigation systems have been shown to increase water use efficiency (WUE) [19].Since salinity of agricultural fields is linked to irrigation, scientists need to keep an eye on it as a fundamental limitation restricting crop production. 14 There is a wide variety of irrigation scheduling methods that may be used effectively.The calculation and monitoring of soil water status and balance, plant stress symptoms, climate data, and complex models are all included into the planning process [110].Regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) might be used as a solution in places with water scarcity owing to rising municipal and industrial demands, since it maintains a sustainable equilibrium between drought and agricultural productivity.By reducing the amount of irrigation water used, RDI has the potential to considerably boost WUE with little to no impact on yield.Thus, the disadvantage is outweighed by the gain from reusing the water for other purposes, such as irrigation.Strategies like belowsurface drip irrigation and alternating wetting and drying (AWD) are other potential ways to improve water use efficiency (WUE).Governments in water-poor areas may improve water conservation and use for agriculture by offering appropriate incentives and services [111].

Utilizing AI for Efficient Water Resource Management
Management of water resources includes reducing water waste, increasing water harvesting, optimizing the use of all available water, and ensuring equitable distribution to users.It also entails establishing rules and methods to carry out the responsibilities in the face of disjointed controls.It was discovered that the standard procedures and practices were not sufficient to carry out the jobs successfully.In order to ensure the long-term viability of the water supply, it is essential that all relevant factors be taken into consideration in water management procedures.The vast majority of water, over 97%, is too salty to be consumed.Water quality has also deteriorated as a result of pollution.The primary contributors to water pollution come from a variety of industries, including those involved in intensive agriculture [112], wastewater (UN-Water, 2011), mining, industrial output, and untreated urban runoff.Traditional approaches to water management fail to adequately address the requirement for effective use of water from a variety of sources.Current water consumption practices are inefficient and expensive [113], and there is reluctance to adopt cutting-edge information and communication technology.(ICT).Machine learning algorithms may provide exponential growth in learning toward a defined goal.In order to cover previously unknown patterns in the new data sets, standard methods wouldn't grow exponentially.Numerous sectors, including food production, municipal water distribution, manufacturing, mining, hydroelectricity generation, aquaculture, and cattle husbandry, rely on effective water management.The accessibility of water, the efficiency of water use, and the sustainability of water conservation and harvesting measures are the most urgent problems in the agricultural sector.The industrial sector in India uses almost as much water as the agricultural sector and produces nearly as much pollution, there is an increase in dumping wastewater into natural sources without properly treating it, thus contaminating the pristine water supply.In order for companies to keep up a storage treatment plant (STP) and utilize this treated water for their purpose, efficient monitoring procedures need to be developed because of the absence of proper water management rules.The public in urban areas also faces a serious problem: a prolonged drought.One of the toughest jobs at the metropolitan water board is overseeing water distribution during the dry season.This difficulty is what required the use of clever methods.Smart algorithms simulate a water distribution system that allows for the efficient distribution of a safe and sustainable water supply to the public.The model developed using smart methods will suggest water-efficient smart gadgets, limit individual household water use, and charge users based on their water consumption.Physical, biological, and chemical characteristics are used to determine the water's overall quality.Chlorophyll, pH, dissolved oxygen, heavy metal concentration, chloride, and lead are all indicators (pollutants) of water quality.Some scientists have tried to predict pollution levels using machine learning by feeding in data on water bodies' locations and elevations [114,115]., and machine learning algorithms might be used to issues including leak control, flow monitoring, overuse, pollution, and the development of strategies for sustainable water consumption (Figure .11).

Figure 11.
Using artificial intelligence to improve water management [116].

Conservation Agriculture (CA)
Permanent soil cover, decreased soil disturbance, and a wide variety of plant species are hallmarks of CA farming [117].It is a kind of farming that takes into account the specific requirements of a region's crops and weather patterns to maximize resource efficiency in agricultural crop production while also guarding against soil erosion and land degradation.Reduced soil disturbance, permanent soil cover preservation, and species diversity are the three major pillars of CA theory [118].
The notion of CA gave rise to agronomic methods and agricultural techniques known as zero tillage, no-till, and reduced tillage, all of which aim to cultivate crops annually with as little soil disturbance as possible by means of tillage as possible [118].C sequestration is aided by reduced SOC breakdown, which is a result of increased water availability and infiltration into the soil.In semiarid or arid areas, they may also be useful for preventing soil erosion and improving the soil's biological activity and overall quality.To reduce the prevalence of weeds and diseases while also boosting the soil's nutrition and moisture levels, zero tillage farmers often use crop rotation and cover crops [59].The widespread use of zero tillage is a result of its numerous advantages for crop production in places like South America and northern China .Soil quality may be enhanced via the implementation of CA techniques, making it more resistant to drought and more efficient in its use of water and nutrients.These adjustments are crucial in light of the effects that climate change is having on agricultural output [119,120].Management techniques that enhance or preserve soil quality are essential for reducing these unfavorable effects of agriculture and ensuring their long-term viability [121].The agronomic methods of Conservation Agriculture (CA) are advocated as a means to this objective.The negative effects of conventional farming on the environment and the positive effects of CA on the soil ecosystem are shown in Figure .12[122].

Sustainable Land Management
The land is the single most important nonrenewable resource for those living in poverty since they have no other choice than to depend on it for their existence.It is possible that chopping down trees, which results in the release of carbon, would have a significant influence on food production, will worsen financial crises and tensions, and will put both the existing biodiversity and the environment in jeopardy [123].SLM enhances the resilience of ecosystems and boosts agricultural yields by maximizing the use of limited resources such as land, water, biodiversity, and the environment [38].[124] provides African governments and their partners with the aforementioned information, in addition to an introduction, recommendations, issues, and the

Vertical, Sky Farming
Vertical farming, also known as sky farming, is a relatively new technique that is gaining popularity among farmers because it allows for raising multiple times during a season and prevents losses due to unfavourable atmospheric conditions.Crops are grown in open air/misty environments or mineral nutrient solutions under indoor controlled conditions instead of soil [125].Plants may be cultivated in many layers, greatly increasing the space accessible for agricultural production and reducing the strain on finite land areas.Independent of the environment and hence extremely resistant to changes in environmental variables [22], it is seen as a potential strategy.Other pluses of vertical farming include less pesticide runoff into the environment and a greater potential for reusing agricultural wastes.The fact that it can be used everywhere, not only in the countryside, means that less energy is used delivering food to cities.

Alterations to Technology
Agricultural methods, practices, technology, and even shifts in farmer behavior may all contribute to greater crop yields and greater environmental sustainability.All of these different methods, both technical and behavioral, may work together to increase agricultural yields while minimizing their impact on the environment.A robust exchange of information between farmers and the scientific community is needed to replace the prior research model, which was an earlier paradigm of science generated at the national or worldwide level and then spread to the agricultural community [19].Variations within or across fields have inspired new approaches to farming, such as site-specific crop management, precision agriculture (PA), and satellite farming.The goal of PA is to create a farm-wide decision-support system that maximizes profit from inputs while decreasing waste and protecting natural habitats [126].Positively helpful for the PA that, maybe more than any other factor, contributed to the recent agricultural revolution, satellite navigation enabled by cuttingedge techniques.The ability of PA to aid in the development of a decision-support system or biophysical models to track and control emissions of GHGs and nitrate leaching is another proof of the agroecosystem's environmental credibility [127].It might also be used with remote-sensing methods to monitor soil moisture and nutrient shortages as a guide for watering and fertilizing [128].
In the not-too-distant future, essential crops will suffer the impacts of many stressors at the same time, such as increasing CO2 levels, high temperatures, and drought.In light of the fact that our knowledge of the physiological and agronomic performance of multiple critical sections of cereal in response to different abiotic stressors is limited based on the literature that is currently available, there is a need for more study into the interactions between the effects of these stresses [34,45].The fertilizer industry must actively contribute to a coordinated effort being made globally to enhance and facilitate the 4R Nutrient Stewardship project in order to further optimize NUE and prevent the inadvertent losses of nutrients to the environment.This is necessary in order to ensure that NUE is maximized to its full potential [129,130].Additional agro-ecological practises that ought to be properly integrated into our current agrarian system comprise the use of bio-fertilizers, natural pesticides, crop choice and rotations, inter-and relay cropping, plants with allelopathic effects, and agroforestry systems that comprise fruit, nut, and timber trees, Farmers should be motivated to utilise the best agricultural practices, such as direct sowing into live cover crops and mulching, which result in greater productivity and environmental stability [132].Improved varieties, extension training, and greater nutrient inputs have not been as widely embraced in less developed countries as they have in more developed ones, but they may still raise yields [133].Similar to how pricing or eliminating incentives for inputs like fertilizers or pesticides will reduce wasteful consumption [19].Attracting skilled and educated individuals to farming, or boosting the capabilities of current farmers, is another long-term option worth considering.Most farmers, particularly in developing nations, clearly lack fundamental knowledge at present, which makes it challenging for extension workers to disseminate any helpful invention [134].Tightening the coordination within or between nations requires cooperation on both a national and international scale.Similarly, communication and collaboration with the IPCC must be improved.Policies created to deal with environmental contamination must also be adapted.

Sustainable Farming using Nanotechnology
Inorganic chemical fertilizers, which have negative impacts on human health and the environment, are a need in today's farming practices.By seeping into groundwater, the harmful compounds in these fertilizers have a negative impact on crop yields.The dangers associated with chemical fertilizers, however, should be mitigated by preventative actions [135,136].Producing nanodevices like nanobiosensors (that detect the illness in crops) is a key invention in the area of agriculture [138], and a nanotechnology-based agricultural strategy is a successful technique to produce appealing yield [137].The nanobiosensors have been upgraded with new characteristics to identify microbial toxicity in plants.These bionanosensors are utilized to detect toxicity caused by fungus [138][139][140][141], and their compact size makes them ideal for application in agricultural settings.Soil quality, smart monitoring, higher enzymatic activity, increased nutrients absorption, etc. are just a few of the many ways in which using nanoparticles in traditional agriculture has gained prominence.This strategy is now often referred to as nanoagriculture.Figure .13shows how nanoparticles are used in farming.The precise regulation of nutrients is facilitated by NPs, leading to increased agricultural yield [142][143][144].
Incorporating nanotechnology into the current agricultural system, with the use of effective nanodevices and nano-fertilizers, will significantly improve production [145,146].The various benefits and eco-friendliness of sustainable farming practices have lately gained widespread attention [147].

Successful Demonstration
Research institutions' cutting-edge methods need to be extensively conveyed to farmers and systematically utilized.Some nations have found success in finding a solution to the problem, thanks to the ongoing refinement of current agro-ecosystem management approaches.Some inspiring examples for other nations to emulate are provided below.
Over the last 30 years, Denmark has decreased its excess N from 170 kilograms per hectare per year to less than 100 kilograms per hectare per year.However, the efficiency of N use in agriculture increased from about 20%-30% to 40%-45%, which includes both crop and animal cultivation.Meanwhile, nitrous oxide (N 2 O) emissions and nitrate (N) leaching from crop root zones have been cut in half [148].To boost agricultural yield while reducing environmental effect, Chinese researchers are employing optimum ways by combining numerous SCMS principles, making China a unique laboratory for the rest of the world to learn from.During the years 2008-2012, the productivity of wheat, maize, and rice was assessed in around 500 experimental fields spread across 11 provinces as part of a study led by Zhang et al. [57].Based on their research, they concluded that both grain production and N usage efficiency had risen by more than 30%.Smallholder farmers control most of China, making it difficult to implement successful technology or research findings in their farms [57].Recent research has shown that it is possible to get millions of smallholder farmers to use the suggested integrated soil-crop system management, which would increase crop yield and reduce environmental damage [149].Across 452 counties in China, covering a total of 37 million hectares of cropped land, this massive effort was implemented by a network of over a thousand researchers, extension agents, and agribusiness personnel in tandem with 20.9 million farmers between 2005 and 2015.The N application rate was decreased by 16.5%, projected losses of reactive N were decreased by 25.8%, and GHG emissions were decreased by 19.6%, all three main cereals saw an increase in their average grain yields of about 11%.Small-scale farmers in developing countries like India and Bangladesh might learn from China's success with this method to increase agricultural yields while decreasing their impact on the environment.High fertilizer usage efficiency was attained in Iraq by the use of single and synthetic nano fertilizers through various application techniques and crop types [136,141].

Figure 7 .
Figure 7.An overarching structure for the integration of socioeconomics, ecology, climatology, and agronomy into the study of soil sustainability [50].

Figure 12 .
Figure 12.Soil pollution from conventional farming (A) and protection against erosion thanks to conservation farming (B) [122].