Post Consumed Textile Waste Management and its Impacts on the Environment and Economy in Bandung City

The textile industry has a strategic role in Indonesia’s economic growth, from employment to high export value, with Bandung City as one of its icons with export commodities during 2018-2021 reaching $82.3 million, which also have various negative impacts on the environment. Total textile waste globally, 88% ends up in landfills and incinerators, and it will increase to 68% in 2030 if business as usual is maintained. Post-consumed textile waste covers 88% of the total waste and tends to be more difficult to manage than pre-consumed textile waste due to hygiene and collection constraints that depend on the consumers of these textile products. This study aims to determine the amount of post-consumed textile waste generation along with the fate behaviour carried out by the consumer and formulate a post-consumed textile waste management strategy to reduce 31.89% of greenhouse gas and waste generation according to Indonesia’s NDC 2030 target. Waste generation and its handling behaviour by the community were determined using a random sampling survey and projected based on the value of industrial growth and population growth in Bandung City towards 2030. The results were analysed based on emission factors and other environmental impacts based on IPCC, USEPA, and other supporting journals. The study reveals that the generation of post-consumed textile waste in Bandung is 19.87 Gg/year (7.90 kg/person/year) and the fate behaviours currently rely on individual behaviours in donated, sold, reused, disposed of and other treatments. The study proposes a strategy to improve the system by preventing burning and dumping into rivers, increasing sorting to be processed into new textile products, and treating in landfill using incinerator. The strategy can save 144 billion litters of water, 9.256 thousand tons of chemicals, 314.21 tons of dyes, 355.6 m2/year of landfills, and save Rp.1.273 trillion/year of textile production costs, and most importantly, can keep GHG emissions at 0.435 Gg/year and waste generation at 3.552 Gg/year.


Introduction
Textile and Textile Product Industry (TPT) has a strategic role in national economic development.The industry also contributes to an employment workforce of 3.65 million people and exports value up to USD 3.65 million based on data from August 2021 [1].Exports of textile products reached $12.4 billion in 2017 [2] and became the top 10 world exporters [3].Bandung City is one of the icons of fashion industry in Indonesia since 1921, which has not been spared from the textile industry growth [1].Export commodities in Bandung City during 2018-2021 reached 37.4 million kg with a value of $82.3 million.And overall, the export value of apparel commodities reached $132.1 million [4].The continued growth of the textile industry has had a major impact on the environment, ranging from air, water, soil, and other ecosystems.Globally, only 12% of textile waste is successfully processed, and the others 88% goes to incinerators or landfills.This generation will increase by 68% in 2030 if business as usual operation is maintained [5].The waste consists of 12% pre-consumed which rising during production, and 88% post-consumed which rising after consumer use [6].Post-consumption textile waste has more complex problems than pre-consumption textile waste.In addition to generating more, post-consumer textile waste is also more difficult to manage because it has reduced hygiene after used, as well as collection challenges because textiles have spread into the hands of consumers [7], depends on very complex social dynamics.This is what prompted this research to focus on post-consumption textile waste.Bandung City, which is an icon of the textile industry, also influences the waste generated, where the composition of textile waste (cloth) reaches 4.75%, Much larger than the composition of the national fabric waste, which is only 2.45% of the total waste generation [8].Based on BAPPENAS findings [5], this rapid growth of textile industry has negative impacts on the environment, including water use which reaches 4% of global usage, greenhouse gas emissions which reach 1.2 billion tons of CO2e/year.Hazardous waste with a total of 280 tons is also dumped into the Citarum River every day.This impact is exacerbated by the presence of the fast concept fashion that shortens the life of clothing and increases its environmental impact.Circular economy principle is needed to extend the life of textile products and reduce their impact on the environment.With circular economy, Greenhouse Gas Emissions can cut up to 16.7 million tons of CO2e and save up to 1.2 billion m3 of water in 2030.In addition, a circular economy can make an impact on increasing GDP reaching IDR 19.3 trillion in 2030 and create many green jobs [5].This study aims to determine the generation of post-consumed textile waste in Bandung City and its existing management, which is mostly textile waste and tends to be untreated so that the management potential is quite large.In addition, a textile waste management system will be planned with the target of achieving emission reductions in accordance with Indonesia's Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) 2030 to reduce 31,89% GHG emission [9].Environmental and economic impacts are also calculated with the implementation of the management system which can have an impact on the people of Bandung City.

Methods
This study used a quantitative method using a theoretical basis as a guide to focus on research based on facts in the field.In addition, treatment and generation data presented using a descriptive method to support the research results.The stages of the research consist of preparation, collection of primary and secondary data, processing and analysis of data starting from generation, projection of generation, determination of management systems, as well as impacts on the environment and economy.Primary data obtained from surveys random sampling with interviews and questionnaires conducted online and offline.Using Yamane 's equation (1973) it is determined that 400 respondents are needed to represent the scope of the research, namely Bandung City, which has had 2,452,943 population per 2021.Data representation is maintained based on per capita expenditure, level of education and knowledge related to recycling adjusted to real conditions in Bandung City.Meanwhile, secondary data is obtained from literature reviews, document reviews, and so on, which are widely available on various platforms such as online media, libraries, and others.The questionnaire was analyzed for the validity and reliability of the instrument and its data to ensure objective data and could produce the same conclusions if drawn further.

Descriptive Analysis
Descriptive analysis is used to provide an overview of the demographics and behavior of post-consumed textile waste management for the people of Bandung City.The description includes age, expenditure per capita, education, knowledge, and existing treatment of post-consumed textile waste.

Quantitative Analysis
Quantitative analysis was carried out to determine waste generation, composition, projected generation, and environmental-economic impacts.Generation is obtained from the total type of clothing multiplied by the weight factor of the clothing with reference to zenmarket.jp.Each respondent will be asked how many textile products are disposed of for each type in units which will then be approximated by the weight of each type of textile product.Then, its composition can be determined by dividing each type into the total mass generated.The generation result is projected until 2030 with the Damanhuri and Padmi projection equation [10], where the increase of waste generation per person is assumed to be influenced by the rate of industrial growth as a supply and an increase in people's purchasing power as a demand variable.Supply is represented by the growth rate of the textile industry (Ci), the growth rate of the apparel industry (Ci), the growth rate of the leather industry, and leather goods and footwear (Cp).Meanwhile, demand is represented by an increase in per capita income (Cqn).This projection is multiplied by population growth which is also projected until 2030 by logarithmic method.The environmental impacts of post-consumed textile waste are calculated from greenhouse gas emissions, water use, chemicals, and dyes during production, to land use.Greenhouse gas emissions analyzed based on the post-consumed textile waste life cycle starting from production, handling of waste generation, processing, to landfilling.Analysis of emissions at the time of production using emission factors formulated by McKinsey [11].For handling waste through transportation, the analysis was carried out using the approach of fuel consumed and transportation mileage multiplied by the greenhouse gas emission factor when burning gasoline and starting the engine with emission factors of vehicle from IPCC [12].In the analysis of waste generation emissions, the First Order Decay (FOD) method from IPCC is used which describes the emission process and the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in waste generation, as well as greenhouse gas emissions in the processing process using the open burning method and incinerator.Emission factors also use the approach from USEPA research results [13].For the use of water, McKinsey's research factor [11] is used, while the use of chemicals and dyes each uses the approach formulated by Blusign and M. Morhsed [14] in the research "RFT Dyeing & Its Effects".Meanwhile, the economic impact is calculated from the economic value that can be obtained if reuse and recycling activities are carried out.These economic factors use data from BPS and Techpacker with the assumption that the use of textiles is in accordance with the research results.

Qualitative Analysis
Qualitative analysis was carried out using the Material Flow Analysis (MFA) method which has the principle that the input material is the same as the output material.MFA can explain the life cycle of post-consumed textile waste starting from the source of textile products that reach the customer, to customer treatment which includes donation, sale, reuse, disposal, and other post-consumed textile waste management treatment.

Respondent Profile
The respondents are people who live in Bandung City.The number of respondents in this study was 648 people, which are already representative to represent the population of Bandung city.The age of the respondents is dominated by the millennial generation and generation Z with the most respondents are 20-29 years old (47.8%).This is certainly representative because for other age categories it is targeted according to the percentage distribution of the population of Bandung City compared to the minimum target of respondents.This is what makes the number of respondents at least 400 respondents, reaching 648 respondents at the end of the study.In terms of gender, respondents were almost balanced where female respondents reached 51.54% and men reached 48.46%.There is no significant relationship between gender and waste management behavior [15].However, in other studies, women are more concerned with environmental issues [16], in which women participate more in waste and environment management in general [15].Related to education level, respondents consisted of 12,1% of people with low education (Without School-Elementary Schools), 45.2% with secondary education (SMP-SMA/equivalent) and 23,35% with higher education (Diploma/Bachelor/equivalent).This amount is adjusted to the minimum target number of respondents for each level of education in accordance with the distribution of the population of Bandung City [8].This has affected the research results, especially in terms of existing management carried out by respondents and their willingness to take part in better post-consumption textile waste management.About per capita expenditure, respondents were dominated by groups of people with low per capita expenditure (47.07%), followed by the middle class (40.12%) and the rest of the upper class.Bandung City community is divided into 3 clusters, namely the lower 40% of the population, the middle 40% of the population, and the upper 20% of the population [17].The bottom 40% spend 2.56% of their expenses on clothing and equipment.Clothing expenditure in the middle 40% expenditure group is 2.72%, and expenditure in the top 20% group is 2.92% [17].The results of the calculation of post-consumed textile waste generation from respondents categorized by each age group are presented in table 1.The 648 respondents representing Bandung City, post-consumed textile waste generation reached 7.90 kg/person/year.The generation is divided based on the treatment of post-consumed textile waste, that is donated (33.38%), sold (3.35%), reused (28.46%), disposed (30.73%), and other treatments (4.09%).This amount if illustrated is the same as Figure 1.This existing treatment will be considered communal management, especially for post-consumed textile waste that was disposed of, presented in table 2. Post-consumed textile waste that is disposed of in mixed waste bins will end up in a Temporary Landfills and be transported to a Landfills, while sorted waste will generally receive special processing and will not end up in a Landfills.Based on its composition, the weight amount of post-consumed textile waste was dominated by t-shirts (12.97%), pants/skirts (12.54%), jackets/sweaters/pullovers (12.51%), and household equipment (11.77%).Details in Figure 2.This composition will affect the type of processing and management that is most appropriate according to the type of textile waste, apart from the constituent raw materials.
Respondents' knowledge regarding recycling was quite high (52.93%)and the rest said they did not know (19.29%) and were unsure (27.78%).Knowledge is directly proportional to behavior [18], including in the treatment of post-consumed textile waste.
Regarding suitability for sorting and bringing to certain containers, respondents tended to be willing, with the percentage of willingness to sort reaching 93.4% and sorting and bringing to certain containers reaching 6.6%.In terms of reducing waste generation, most of respondents donate their used clothes (45.71%), and for other treatments it also leads to a willingness to reduce post-consumed textile waste generation.

Normality Test
The Normality Test was carried out using SPSS software.The result is that the independent variable has a significance of less than 0.5 which means that the data is not normally distributed.based on normality calculations in Table 3, so the quantitative analysis was carried out using nonparametric statistics, namely the Spearman test.

Analysis of Factors Affecting Post-Consumed Textile Waste Generation
There are several factors that influence the amount of waste generation and the handling carried out for post-consumption textile waste.Based on the reasons for not using textile products anymore, 39.72% of respondents answered that these textile products were damaged, stained, deformed, or worn out.Apart from that, most of them were because they were no longer suitable (29.94%), don't want it (15,74%) or like it (12,19%) anymore, and other reasons (0,60%).Meanwhile, based on the relationship of independent variables with generation and behavior towards post-consumed textile waste shown in table x.A significancy value below 0.05 indicates that the two variables are correlated.While the significance value above 0.05 indicates that the two variables are not correlated.Then, the correlation coefficient between 0.00-0.25 indicates a very weak correlation, 0.26-0.50indicates a moderate correlation, 0.51-0.75indicates a strong correlation, 0.76-0.99indicates a very strong correlation and 1.00 indicates perfect correlation.This correlation shows how strongly the independent variables affect the dependent variable or post-consumption textile waste generation.A positive correlation coefficient value indicates that the relationship is directly proportional, while a negative value indicates an inverse relationship.The results of the analysis of the relationship between factors that influence the generation of post-consumption textile waste are presented in Table 4.
Age is inversely proportional to the sale of post-consumption textile waste (-0.206), which means that sales of textile waste tend to be carried out by young respondents.Age is also inversely proportional to other treatments which are dominated by recycling treatment (-0.253).This means that the recycling treatment is carried out by younger respondents.While the behavior of post-consumption textile waste disposal is directly proportional to the age of the respondent.This is because the millennial generation and Z generation (between the ages of 20-39) are the most aware of environmentally friendly behavior [19].This makes waste management more varied by selling, carrying out other treatments in the form of recycling, and reducing the tendency to throw away post-consumption textile waste.Millennials and Zgeneration have an important role in circular economy where 66% of millennials are willing to buy more clothes for sustainable brands and as many as 69% pay attention to "eco-friendly" and "sustainable" branding claims when buying clothes [19].But on the other hand, they are also the main target of textile products [19], especially fast fashion [20], Including their awareness of fast fashion and its impact.This is in accordance with the results of the study which showed that respondents aged 20-29 years had the highest amount of post-consumption textile waste generation.The number will decrease as the age of the respondent increases.
Education is a factor that influences a person's behavior [18].Better waste management is carried out by people with higher education and vice versa, worse waste management is done by people with lower education [21].This has affected the research results, especially in terms of existing management carried out by respondents and their willingness to take part in better post-consumption textile waste management.
The value of sales and other treatments is directly proportional with level of education, while the value of disposal is inversely proportional.This shows that the more educated the respondent is, the better the management will be, namely selling and other treatments.While the disposal behavior is getting lower along with the education of the respondents.This conclusion justifies the theory that education is directly related to good waste management, including post-consumption textile waste.So, it is justified that education will be directly proportional to good waste management.
In terms of knowledge about waste management, a direct relationship is shown in the behavior of donating, selling, reuse and other treatments.while disposal is inversely proportional.This shows that with knowledge related to recycling, respondents will tend to manage their post-consumption textile waste properly.Knowledge (cognitive) is the main shaper of one's behavior, because from experience and research results it turns out that behavior based on knowledge will be better than not based on knowledge [22].Including management and tendency to dispose of waste.In Gusti's research, et al. [22], knowledge is related to a person's behavioral intentions and attitudes in managing his waste.The more people know, the better the management is done.The results of this study justify these theories.Donations, sales, other treatments, and the amount of waste generation are directly proportional to the increase in expenditure per capita of respondents.This shows that the higher expenditure of post-consumption textile waste will have an impact on the high generation of post-consumption textile waste, in accordance with research by Kaushal [23] which states that economic growth can result in a significant increase in the amount of urban solid waste worldwide, which which in this study was measured using expenditure per capita.While disposal is inversely proportional to expenditure per capita.This is estimated because the higher the respondent's standard of living, the higher the quality of the textile products consumed so that more and more are treated better instead of being thrown away immediately.This is supported by the fact that high-income groups in the city of Bandung spend more money to buy textile products (2.92%) when compared to middle-income groups (2.72%) and low spending (2.56%).
Expenditure is significantly related to the increase in urban waste generation worldwide [23].
Consumer behavior is directly proportional to waste generation.The consumption value can explain the amount of waste generation with 79.1% signification.With linear regression, an equation for waste generation can be formulated which is associated with the consumption of textile products, both new and used textile products.The equation is as follows.
Table 5. Linear regression results about relationship between consumed and postconsumed textile waste generation. ( With a value of x is the consumption of new textile products, y is the purchase of used textile products and z is the acquisition of used textile products.This equation can be used to determine post-consumption textile waste generation with consumption pattern data of a subject.However, this equation cannot yet determine when a textile product will be discarded by the calculation subject.The calculation results are still limited to linear calculations of consumption patterns and estimates of generated waste generation.

Material Flow Analysis
Material flows Analysis of post-consumed textile waste in Bandung City is as follows in Figure 3.

The Impact of Post-Consumed Textile Waste on the and the Economy
The environmental impact is calculated from post-consumed textile waste generation using the business-asusual scheme.Greenhouse gas emissions from the production process are 107.55Gg CO2e/year, while in the entire waste management cycle, Post-Consumed Textile Waste generates 1.034 Gg CO2e/year of greenhouse gases with details of 0.183 Gg CO2e/year from landfill waste, 0.004 Gg CO2e/year from waste dumped into rivers and sewers, then 0.041 Gg CO2e/year from waste that is burned.In addition, postconsumed textile waste also causes losses in terms of the use of water, chemicals, and dyes.In its production, the total generation of post-consumed textile waste requires 7.69 billion liters of water, 3,338.59tons of chemicals and 113.3 tons of dyes.This use has a negative impact on the presence of waste that pollutes the environmental ecosystem.In addition, the generation of post-consumed textile waste also takes up 1,332.81m2/year of landfill land.
As for the economic impact, it is calculated from the amount of unmanaged waste.With the disposal of textile products in Bandung City, there is a loss of 448.55 billion rupiahs every year.

Projection of Post-consumed Textile Waste Generation
The projection of post-consumed textile waste generation is carried out by projecting the population and the waste generation per person per year.Using the logarithmic method, the growth rates of the manufacturing, retail and agricultural industries are respectively 2.70%, 2.73% and -0.99%.While the rate of increase in per capita income and population growth is 3.76% and 0.12%, the projection results are as follows.The scenario chosen is the target to reduce unmanaged waste generation achieved by scenarios 2 and 3. Scenario 2 was chosen because it has a higher level of feasibility according to the scenario hierarchy.With the second scenario, 144 billion liters of water, 9.256 thousand tons of chemicals and 314.21 tons of dyes can be saved per year.355.6 m2/year landfill land was also saved.Furthermore, reusing and recycling and using raw materials resulting from the processing of post-consumed textile waste can save the textile industry expenses of 1.273 trillion rupiahs per year.

Conclusions
Based on the research results, the generation of post-consumed textile waste in Bandung City is 19.87 Gg/year and this generation will reach 21.71 Gg /year in 2030.The waste generation can also be determined through the equation ( 1).Post-consumed textile waste management in Bandung City still relies on individual management through donation (33.38%), sales (3.35%), reuse (28.46%), disposal (30.73%) and other treatments (4.09%).Disposal is carried out by disposing of it in mixed waste bins (62.38%), segregated waste bins (21.70%), rivers, and sewers (1.45%), burning (13.99%) and disposal in other places.others (0.48%).Waste that is disposed of in a mixed waste bin will be transported along with other waste to the Sarimukti landfill.
To achieve the target of reducing 31.9% of greenhouse gas emissions and waste generation in 2030 (NDC Indonesia), an alternative post-consumed textile waste management was chosen by changing the behavior of 15.82 % of people who burn and throw it into rivers, and sewers to dispose it into the waste collection sites.Then, drop boxes are provided at 30 waste collection sites specifically for post-consumed textile waste which later targets 20% of the community to sort their waste and collect it communally and sell it to companies in Bandung district to be processed into new textile products.Waste processing at the Sarimukti landfill has also been added with an incinerator with a target of processing 12% of waste from Bandung City.With these alternatives, Indonesia's NDC 2030 target can be achieved and has an impact on saving 144 billion liters of water, 9.256 thousand tons of chemicals, and 314.21 tons of dyes, and 355.6 m2 of landfill per year.In addition, the increase in reduce and reuse, as well as the use of environmentally friendly raw materials from post-consumed textile waste can save 1.273 trillion rupiah per year of textile production costs.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.illustration of post-consumption textile waste generation on average for each respondent per year according to gender.

Figure 3 .
Figure 3. Respondents' Preferences in Willingness to Reduce Post-Consumed Textile Waste Disposal.

Figure 4 .
Figure 4. Material flow analysis of post-consumed textile waste in Bandung City.

Table 1
Post-consumed textile waste generation for each age category of respondents.

Table 2 .
Respondents' treatment of post-consumption textile waste disposal.

Table 3 .
Normality test results of independent variable.

Table 4 .
Relationship between independent variables and post-consumed textile waste generation.

Table 6 .
[9]jection of post-consumed textile waste generation.Alternative post-consumed textile waste management is formulated based on the existing post-consumed textile waste management in Bandung City and its handling by respondents.The goal of this management is to achieve target of reducing greenhouse gases by 31,89%[9].

Table 7 .
Alternative scenario of post-consumed textile waste management in Bandung City reduces 31,89% greenhouse gas and waste generation according to Indonesia's NDC 2030 target.

Table 8 .
Post-consumed textile waste generation and greenhouse gas emissions in each scenario in 2030.