The dynamics of species change, pest status, and new pests on sugarcane in Indonesia

This review aims to assess if there has been a change in the species and status of sugarcane pests during a particular period. This information has not yet been made available. This study is crucial, particularly for the developing an Indonesian sugarcane pest management strategy. The review approach involved interpreting the three books published in 1951, 2011, and 2017. The references were (1) The Pests of Crops in Indonesia by Kalshoven (1981), a translation of De Plagen van de Cultuurgewassen in Indonesia published in 1951 (period 1), (2) Sugarcane Pests and Diseases (period 2), and (3) Sugarcane Plant Pest Organism (period 3). The publications described the current status of pest species. In addition, we closely examined additional sources related to the subject themes. The results revealed that some species and pest statuses had shifted, as well as the appearance of new pests on sugarcane. Changes in species, status, and the appearance of new pests on sugarcane resulted from shifting the planting area from rice fields to rainfed land, alterations in agricultural practices, the presence of natural enemies, and climate change. Shoot borer, stem borer, and white grubs were significant sugarcane pests during the three periods.


Introduction
From a long time ago, pest attacks have become an obstacle to increasing Indonesia's sugarcane productivity.In sugarcane plants, there are many insect pest species found.[1] reported about 131 species of insects that disrupted sugarcane, although not all of them were dangerous.Traditional and natural pest management has already been carried out for a long time as an effort to overcome this problem.Even in 1890, according to Hong 1959, to keep pests from entering Java (Indonesia), the government at that time had taken quarantine action.Therefore, it is not surprising that Indonesia is called a quarantine pioneer country [2].
Sugarcane cultivation is still being carried out.The development of sugarcane which began during the Dutch colonial period until now will undoubtedly bring changes.Changes in cultivation practices, changes in sugarcane planting land from paddy fields to rain-fed land, and climate change will lead to changes in species and pest status.Not much is known about the changes that have occurred.As a result, pests are still a problem in sugarcane cultivation.
Stem borers can attack every phase of plant growth.Losses mainly occur in sugarcane, which already has an internode.If an internode attack of 20% occurs, it causes a decrease in sugar by at least 10% [13].While giant stem borers can cause severe damage, an estimated 60% [14] of Medan giant stem borers caused damage at 5% [15].
White grub pests have caused severe attacks on sugar cane plantations in Java and Sumatra [16].White grub attacks can reach 70%, and in the area of Takalar Sugar Factory in South Sulawesi and Gunung Madu Company in Lampung [17].White grubs pest is an important pest, especially in sandy sugarcane development land.As a result, immature sugarcane that is still 7-8 months old must be cut down to avoid more severe white grub attacks [18].
This review study aims to determine whether the sugarcane crop in Indonesia during a specific period, there has been a shift in pests and the emergence of new pests.The results of this review are expected to be considered in developing future sugarcane pest management strategies in Indonesia.

Review method
Collect books related to the type and status of pests on sugarcane plants and record the book's year of publication.We obtained three books that were published in 1951, 2011, and 2017.They were used as references: (1) The pests of crops in Indonesia by [19], a translation of De Plagen van de Cultuurgewassen in Indonesia book published in 1951 (period 1), (2) Sugarcane Pests and Diseases by [20] (period 2) and (3) Sugarcane Plant Pest Organism by [21] (period 3).
Period 1 interpreted as sugarcane pest species and status in Indonesia, recorded in the book "De plagen van de cultuurgewassen in Indonesia published in 1951, translated in English by Kalshoven, 1981 entitled "The pests of crops in Indonesia."Period 1 was the period of sugarcane development in the Dutch colonial era where sugarcane plants were developed in paddy fields on the mainland while the cultivation system applied was the Reynoso system; the sugarcane varieties planted are POJ, with fertile soil, very intensive maintenance, sufficient irrigation, and available labor.
Period 2 is interpreted as sugarcane pest species and status recorded in the pocketbook published by ISRI/BSES/ACIAR [20], which are described as the development of sugarcane transitions from paddy fields to dry or rainfed land.Most sugarcane varieties planted are Ps and PS varieties, rainwaterdependent irrigation, less intensive maintenance, and limited labor.Since the 1980s, sugarcane development has begun to change to rainfed or dry land.Where before 1980, the sugarcane development area was dominated by paddy fields.In 2017 the paddy fields area decreased to 22%, and rainfed land increased to 78%.
Period 3 is sugarcane pest species and status recorded in Clinical Sugarcane Plant Pest Organism guidelines published by Indonesian Sugar Research Institute [21].In the guidelines, Period 3 is described as sugar cane development in rainfed land, fully rainwater-dependent irrigation, sugarcane varieties planted are PS varieties and less intensive maintenance due to limited labor.In this period, almost 80% (365,000 ha) of the total area of 445,000 ha of sugarcane land is rainfed.
Read and record carefully each species and the status reported in each book, then it is arranged in tabular form.In addition, other references related to topics, especially discussion references, are searched.

Results
The dynamics or changes in sugarcane pest species and status in Indonesia are divided into three periods (Table 1).Each period can affect changes in pest species and status differently.Table 1 explains that there have been dynamics or changes in the species and status of every group of pests.They range from pests that attack seeds and germination pests that attack roots, shoot borers, stem borers, leaf destroyers, suckers, and animal groups.The following table presents the dynamics of pest species from each group of pests and their status as pests.

Seed and germination pests
Termite pests Macrotermes are seen in three periods (Periods 1, 2, and 3) with status as pests with moderate levels of damage.This data indicates that Macrotermes species can survive to adapt in three periods (paddy fields, transitions, and rainfed land).Currently, termite pests, Macrotermes are pests that cause moderate levels of damage.In the state of Nigeria termite pest, Macrotermes damages sugarcane germination by 22-27% and sugarcane stem by 8.6-16.7%[22]; in Central Africa, termites cause damage to sugarcane by 5-10% [23] in Chad termite Central African countries cause up to 25% damage [24].Different from mole cricket species (Gryllotalpa sp.), found in period 1.These pests are more adaptable to paddy fields but cannot adapt to rainfed or dryland conditions.Currently, mole crickets are not recorded as damaging pests in sugarcane.According to Charles Darwin, the cause of the dynamics is the ability of species to adapt to the environment and not the most robust species.Mole crickets and other soil pests are reported to damage potato crops with up to 50% damage, both in Central and West Java [25].

Root pests
Root pest found in period 1 is the root bug Stibaropus tabulatus, white grubs Apogonia destructor, white grubs L. stigma, white grubs Leucopholis and Phyllophaga.Insect pests that can survive and adapt in periods 1, 2, and 3 are white grubs L. stigma, L. rorida tibicens, and Phyllophaga (=Holotrichia helleri).The status of white grub pest L. stigma has not changed until now.It is still an essential pest in sugarcane, especially in sandy soil sugarcane development, for example, in Kediri, Tulungagung, Situbondo Districts in East Java, and Purworejo District in Central Java [18].White grubs Phyllophaga is still reported as a pest, with a low attack rate.In periods 2 and 3, Tibiscens and E. Viridis cicadas were recorded as pests in sugarcane, which previously were not.

Shoot borer
In periods 1, 2, and 3, shoot borer Tryporyza (= Scirpophaga) nivella was recorded as an essential pest [26].This record means that these species can adapt in 3 periods, and until now, the shoot borer has been recorded as an essential pest in sugarcane in Indonesia [27].In India, this pest is included as a severe pest and causes a decline in sugarcane production by 36-56% [28].

Stem borer
During period 1 the pests recorded were C. saccharipagus, Pragmataecia, S. grisescens, grey borer T. schistaceana, S. inferens, and C. infuscatellus.In period 2, there were additional species, namely C. auricillius and Dorysthenes sp.In period 3, there was an increase in the number of C. terrenellus, R. obscurus sugarcane weevil borer, O. rhinoceros rhino beetles which attacked the base of sugarcane plant stems and black beetle Metanastes sp. which attacks the base of the shoot.
Boktor Dorysthenes sp. is a pest whose larvae attack the bottom of the stem in the ground and damage the rootstock.This pest was recorded in periods 2 and 3, wherein period 1, was not reported as a pest in sugarcane.[29] reported that this new pest was first discovered in Subang, West Java, in 1999.
Adaptable species for three periods are C. saccharipagus, Pragmataecia, grey borers T. schistaceana, S. inferens, and C. infuscatellus.Until now, C. saccharipagus still has an essential pest status on sugarcane [30]; [27].The other three species are minor pests.In period 2, there were two essential pest species, boktor Dorysthenes and C. auricillius.In period 3, there was an increase in the number of pests, from 7 to 11 pest species.Stem borer pests have become essential pests in various countries [31], including in Pakistan C. influscatellus caused a 20-57% reduction in production [32], and in Ethiopia, with an incidence of borers of 5-40% [33].

Leaf destroying pests
For leaf-destroying pests, two pests can adapt in 3 periods, namely Javanese grasshopper V. nigricornis and army worms Mythimna.Both have the status of mild pests.In period 2, Locusta migratoria pests were recorded as important pests, whereas previously, they were not recorded as pests.In period 1, there were about 17 pest species recorded, but in periods 2 and 3, the number of pests decreased to only 5. The pests are Javanese grasshopper V. nigricornis, M. loreyi, A. combusta, Spodoptera sp., and migratory locust L. migratoria manilensis.
Grasshopper pests constitute a significant threat to food security throughout the world.Attacking various continents except for Antarctica threatens the livelihoods of 10% of the world's population.These grasshoppers are famous for their agility, polyphagy, and capacity for long-distance migration [34].In Indonesia, grasshopper pest attacks (L.migratoria) are found in 25 districts in 8 provinces namely South Sumatra, Lampung, East Nusa Tenggara, West Nusa Tenggara, North Sulawesi, South Sulawesi, West Kalimantan and Central Kalimantan Provinces.Generally, there are two seasons in a year, namely, the April-September and October-March periods, and both have different broad patterns of locusts [35].
S. frugiperda J.E. Smith, also known as fall armyworm (FAW), has been reported as a new pest attacking maize in Indonesia.The fall armyworm, S. frugiperda, is a crop pest native to the Americas, which has invaded and spread throughout sub-Saharan Africa within two years [36].This pest has entered Indonesia and is found in Sumatra and Java.In West Java, fall armyworms attacked maize in Bandung, Sumedang, and Garut Districts [37].In addition to maize, fall armyworms attack many other economically important crops, e.g., rice, sugarcane, sorghum, beet, tomato, potato, cotton, and pasture grasses [36].Although reported as a sugarcane host, there are currently no reports of fall armyworms attacking sugarcane in Indonesia.

Sucking pests
Insect pests that can survive in 3 periods are Perkinsiella saccharicida, sugarcane woolly aphid Ceratovacuna lanigera, sugarcane whitefly Aleurolobus barodensis, and Saccharicoccus saccari.For sucker pests, there is a change in the type of pest species where pests recorded in period 1 were not recorded as pests in period 2 or 3.There is a change in pest species and the status of sucker pests for three periods.In 1996 Ceratovacuna was an essential pest in sugar cane in Indonesia [38].P. saccharicida Kirkaldy is not only a pest but also a vector of sugarcane virus disease [39].C. lanigera Zehnter is an important pest of sugarcane in many parts of India, including Maharashtra and Karnataka [40].Whitefly A. barodensis in various Indian states causes a decline in sugarcane production by up to 24% [41].In Egypt, the S. saccari attack affected sugarcane's physical and chemical properties [42].

Animal
Animal species that damage sugarcane plants and are able to survive in 3 periods are rat Rattus argentiventer, which has been recorded as an important pest until now.In period 2, there were additional pests, namely greater bandicoot rat, Bandicota indica with pest status as medium destroyers, and pigs, Babyrousa babyrussa, where previously both species were not recorded as pests.Until period 3, the two animals were still recorded as pests.

New pests
Based on the results of a survey funded by the Australian Center for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), there are several new pests of insects on sugarcane that need to be aware.Soil bedbugs (Stiboropus moginus), cicadas (Tibiscen sp.), lack beetles (Metanestes sp.), horn beetles (Oryctes rhinoceros), and sugar cane borer (Rhabdoscelus obscurus).The insect pest population is found in several regions in Indonesia with a low population level, but its presence needs to be aware [44].However, based on Table 1, some of the new pests on sugarcane are Coptotermes spp termites, C. terrenellus, Pagenstecher, sugarcane weevil borer Rhabdoscelus obscurus, rhino beetle Oryctes rhinoceros, black beetle Metanastes sp.base of shoots, armyworm Anticyra combusta, sugarcane scale insect Aulacaspis madiunensis, A. tagalensisistem fluid sucker, sugarcane plant hopper Pyrilla perpusilla leaf sucker, leafhopper Eumetophina flavipes, and sugarcane whitefly Neomaskellia andropogonis leaf sucker.

Discussion
Environmental changes caused the occurrence of pest type and status dynamics in Indonesian sugar cane plants.The shift in sugar cane development from rice fields ecosystem to rainfed land, changes in cultivation techniques, changes in planting from plant cane to a repetitive ratoon cane, unwise use of chemicals (pesticides and fertilizers), sugarcane varieties shifting or introduction, as well as climate change, are essential factors causing dynamics.Besides, it is caused by changes in personal views, including better demands on agricultural products, assessment of pest status, and advances in taxonomy/pest identification.
Changes in the ecosystem of paddy fields to rainfed can impact certain types of insect adaptability which live on the ground.For example, soil insects and mole crickets Gryllotalpa sp. can adapt to the paddy field ecosystem but cannot adapt to dry or rainfed ecosystems.Therefore, mole crickets are not found in rainfed sugarcane development areas (in Periods 2 and 3).However, some other pests, such as white grubs, can adapt to the paddy field and rainfed ecosystems.Insects that survive on sugarcane are insects that can use sugarcane as a host plant and can improve the condition of their survival [45].
Insects that live in plantations, such as borers, with a change in ecosystems from paddy fields to rainfed land, have no significant changes.The number of borers recorded is increasing, where in period 1, there were seven species, and in period 3, there were 12 species.Around 16 species of leaf-destroying pests were recorded in period one and decreased to 5 species in period 3. Overall, the insect species decreased from 47 species in period 1 to 27 in period two and increased to 37 species in period 3. Animal pests recorded increased from 1 species, rat R. argentiventer, in period 1, and there were two additional species in periods 2 and 3, namely Greater bandicoot rat B. indica and pigs, B. babyrussa.
The presence of natural enemies also determines the dynamics.For example, Jatiroto flies Diatraeophaga stiatalis Townsend, which can reduce stem borer attacks from 18% to 6%.The release of Trichogramma parasitoid also affects the stem borer population.The other natural enemies, such as Encarsia flavoscutellum Zehtner parasite, often found in young flea eggs, were 6-10 parasites, produced by fleas in an 8-10 day cycle.The parasite can protect against Chillocorus spp.and Scymnus sp.[19].[46] reported that C. flavipes Cameron (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) is an essential gregarious larval endoparasitoid of sugarcane borers.It is widely distributed in different growing regions in India, with a range of parasitization from 4.0 to 21.6 %. [47] reported that in India that the average intensity of internode shoot damage and borer damage decreased to 70.70 and 53.87 % in 2011 and 2012, respectively, and the average percentage incidence of inter-node shoot damage and borer damage decreased to 64.92 and 49.66 % in 2011 and 2012 respectively.
Changes in the fertilizer used could also cause pest species and status dynamics.In 1963 single fertilizer was used with a dose of 80 kg Nitrogen, 40 kg Phosphate, and 120 kg Potassium per hectare for sugarcane development in paddy fields and fertile land.In 1980, single fertilizers were used in paddy fields on ratoon cane (RC) with fertilizer dosages of 80-120 kg N, 40-90 kg P2O5, and 60-180 kg K2O per hectare.In rainfed areas, ratoon plants use fertilizer doses of 130-150 kg N, 40-90 kg P2O5, and 60-180 kg K2O per hectare.From a pest biology aspect, nitrogen fertilizer addition increases amino acids and protein.Its influence on pest biology accelerates the life cycle of pests and the development of pest populations [48].
The changes of varieties can cause the change of the dynamics of pest species and status.From 1931-1989 the varieties of sugarcane planted were POJ, which has relatively soft stem properties.The varieties planted in 1987-1990 were Ps 1 and Ps 61 varieties that have relatively tough stem properties.In 1990 the varieties were planted PS sugarcane with tough stem properties.In 2004, the varieties planted were mostly Bululawang varieties.This variety is suitable to be developed in coarse-textured soil (loam soil) and fine-textured with good drainage.This variety is sensitive to shoot and stem borer.In 2014, almost 80% of sugar cane farmers in East Java planted Bululawang varieties, of which around 86% were ratoon plants.From the pest control aspect, the dominance of certain varieties and the repeated planting of ratoon cane (RC) trigger more severe pest attacks.
The dynamics of pest species and status can also be affected by the occurrence of climate change [49].[28] reported a correlation between C. infuscatellus population and various environmental factors, revealing a significant positive correlation with maximum temperature and a non-significant and positive correlation with minimum temperature.Until now, there has been no comprehensive research on climate change on pests, and disease development in Indonesia.
Events in the field give a definite indicator that there is a close link between climate change with pests and disease problems.Increased air and CO2 temperatures have a direct and indirect effect on insects.Direct influences on insects include reproduction changes, life force, spread, behavior, and physiology.The increase in CO2 causes a decrease in nitrogen in the leaves and can increase insect consumption of leaves by up to 40% to compensate for insects' need for nitrogen.On the other hand, an increase in CO2 reduces plant resistance to insect pests [50].

Conclusion
There has been a shift in several species and pest status, as well as the emergence of 12 new pests on Indonesia's sugarcane.There were 16 species of pests able to adapt for three periods recorded with status as pests that are very harmful to less harmful.These species of pests include pests that attack seeds and germination, pests that attack roots, shoot borers, stem borers, giant stem borers, and grey borer pests.The recorded species that can adapt in three periods as leaf destroyers, exploiters, and pests are animals.Changes in species, pest status, and the emergence of new pests on sugarcane are caused by shifting sugarcane planting land from paddy fields to rainfed land, changes in cultivation practices, for example, the types and doses of fertilizers, varieties, plant cane/ratoon cane, natural enemies, pest control practices and climate change.

Table 1 .
Dynamics of sugarcane pest species and status in three periods (1, 2 and 3) in Indonesia.