Optimizing the use of submergence and drought tolerant rice varieties to reduce the impact of climate change on swampland

The swamplands are one among the possibe suboptimal land for agriculture. The land consists of tidal swamplands and freshwater land that are wide obstainable in Indonesia. The hydrotopography of tidal swampland is powerfully influenced by tide and neap tide of water, whereas in freshwater land it’s for the most part determined by precipitation. Drought, flooding or deep inundation, and shifts in rainfall patterns as a result of extreme temperature change have an impact on agriculture in decreasing food crop production, significantly for rice in swamplands. One strategy in anticipating the impact of climate change in agriculture, particularly food crops (rice) is to use submergence and drought tolerant varieties still as early maturing rice varieties. Rice varieties tolerant of submergence in swamplands like Inpara 3, Inpara 4, Inpara 5, Inpari 29, and Inpari 30 Ciherang sub1. Whereas drought tolerant varieties such as Inpari 18, Inpari 19, Inpari 20, Inpago 4, Inpago 5, Inpago 6, Inpago-8, and Inpago Lipigo-4. In addition to avoiding drought, early-maturing aged rice varieties such as Hipa 6 Jete, Inpari Si Denuk are often used, Inpari-34 Salin Agritan, Cakra Buana Agritan, Inpari 12 and Inpari 13. The purpose of this paper is to explain how planting submergence and drought-tolerant rice varieties can reduce the effects of climate change on swamp agriculture. It is expected to significantly reduce the effects of climate change for agriculture in swamplands by treating submergence and drought tolerance and early maturing varieties.


Introduction
Swampland is one of the probable unsuitable land for agriculture and is widespread in land.The realm of swampland in Indonesia reaches 34.93 million hectares, with approximately 19.99 million ha having the potential for agriculture, including food crops, horticulture, and plantations.There are 8.35 million hectares of recurring event swampland, 11.64 million ha of monotonous swamp land, and 14.92 million ha of peat land in the wetland region [1].This area distribution is specifically for peat lands, albeit the peat lands are placed in tidal and monotonous swamp areas.This is often because peat lands are thought of a world topic, thus to facilitate the distribution and extent of peat lands, peat lands are separated separately.1230 (2023) 012029 IOP Publishing doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1230/1/012029 2 Swamplands include both tidal and freshwater swamplands.Swampland is divided into four land typologies based entirely on the kind of soil and its limits in agricultural improvement, including potential land, acid sulphate soils, peat land, and saline soils.Based on the excessive tide and groundwater stage, the tidal swamplands are classified into four overflow types: A, B, C, and D. According to the peak and time of inundation water, freshwater swamplands are classified as shallow, intermediate, and deep [2].The hydro-topography of swamplands is at once related to rainfall which is one of the vital climatic elements.Excessive rainfall in tidal swamplands observed through excessive tide situations will reason the tidal swampland to be inundated quite deeply, as well as in monotonous swamplands.
Rice is a strategic commodity and is a meals aspect wanted through many humans withinside the world, which include in Indonesia.Rice cultivation further to irrigated and rainfed rice fields, is likewise accomplished in tidal swamplands and monotonous swamplands.The predominant issues confronted in growing tidal swamplands for agriculture are the biophysical situations of the land (particularly water and soil fertility issues), weather change, socio-monetary situations associated with human resources (farmers), confined centers and infrastructure, and regulations which have now no longer been evolved in prefer of optimizing sub-top-quality land use.The biophysical situation of tidal swamplands is governed by extremely high soil and water acidity, a lack of macro (P, K) and micro nutrients (Zn, Cu, Bo), and an abundance of iron (Fe), sulfate (SO4), and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) that is toxic to plants [3].In newly opened land with very acidic soil acidity (pH<4.5)and pretty excessive Fe 2+ content material (300-400 ppm) [2], the cultivation of excessive-yielding rice types is as a substitute successful, because of the excessive biophysical stresses of the land very heavy.Local varieties of rice can nevertheless adapt pretty well, even though the yield is low.Therefore, rice farmers in tidal swampland usually plant nearby kinds of rice, due to its true adaptability and occasional manufacturing inputs, in order that manufacturing charges also are low.
One part of rice cultivation technology is the use of superior varieties.The connotations of excellence embrace expressing high yield potential, short duration, and resistance to pests and diseases.In reference to recurrent event swamplands, the which means of superiority should be balanced with the adaptive nature of plants.Adaptation of rice plants in tidal swamplands needs plant properties that are genetically tolerant to land conditions and physiologically these plants have a mechanism of resistance to land conditions beneath these stresses.a number of the land conditions that become limiting factors in tidal swamplands are acidic soil (low pH) and therefore the potential for iron toxicity to rice plants.Meanwhile, in monotonous swamplands, the limiting issue is deep inundation and the issue of predicting the arrival of water on the other hand rainwater.this is often as a result of the water within the monotonous swamplands often comes suddenly because it rains in the higher area.
Climate change is defined as the state of numerous climate components whose magnitude and/or intensity alter or diverge from dynamics and average conditions in a clear direction (trend) (growing or decreasing).Climate change has an impact on the agricultural food chain as well as swamplands.Drought, floods, or submergence caused by El Nino and La Nina will result in crop failure, notably for rice.The purpose of this paper is to show how to mitigate the effects of climate change by using superior rice cultivars that are drought and submergence resistant in swamplands.

Land variability in swamplands
Swampland consists of tidal and monotonous swampland.Supported the kind of soil and its constraints in agricultural development, swampland is split into four land typologies, namely: (1) potential land, land with milder constraints than different typologies, (2) acid sulfate land, land with moderate constraints heavier because of the presence of pyrite at a depth of 50-100 cm and a few at a depth of >100 cm with a soil pH of 4.5 and high iron content, (3) peat soils, land with a layer of peat on the highest layer >50 thick cm with 20% organic matter content, and (4) saline soils, land with salinity constraints because of saltwater intrusion and customarily sandy texture as a result of it's situated on a coastal plain [4].Soil agrophysical difficulties arise mostly on acid sulfate soils (high Fe and Al, low pH), salty soils (salinity), and peat soils (poor micro element Cu and Zn), resulting in low fertility [5].
The tidal swampland is divided into four overflow variations based on high tide and groundwater level, namely overflow types A, B, C, and D (Figure 1).The overflow type A is continuously inundated with single tides (full) and double tides (neighbourhood) and experiences daily fluctuations.Areas of this kind embody the coast and on big river.The overflow type B throughout one tide (full moon), however experiences daily discharge.This kind of overflow space covers the inside as way as 50-100 kilometer from the large river.The overflow type C doesn't get a periodic event surge and is for good disconnected.The overflow kind D does not have a restricted tidal and setting effect.Type A land has excess water, whereas in type D land there's limited water convenience [6].
Potential land has soil that contains potential acid sulfate soil with a pyrite layer more than 2% at a depth of more than 50 cm from the soil surface, whereas acid sulfate soil has a pyrite layer greater than 2% at a depth of 300 cm.Saline land is defined as terrain that experiences or is subjected to salt water intrusion with a Na concentration more than 8% in soil solution for more than three months per year [7].Recurrent event locations are classified into four groups based on the type of water overflow, specifically types A, B, C, and D (figure 1).Type A land overflows with high tide on a daily basis and is double recurring occurrence; type B overflows with large tides and is well drained; type C is not tidal and is well drained; and type D does not have a tidal result and is restricted in drainage.The difference in water level at single tide between rainy and time of year near land type A is 30 cm, and 40 cm toward land type B. The water level in type C reaches 65 cm throughout the season, while it is more than 70 cm below the soil surface during the dry season.Within the secondary channel, the difference in water level between tide and low water is 1.5-2.5 m [8][9][10].The kind of overflow in wetlands regions will be altered by reclamation efforts or the construction of water infrastructure.The reclamation canal directs the tide towards the inside, allowing the planet that was once type C to become type B. If emptying occurs as a consequence of the development of a water system network, the land that was initially type B may become type C when the water table rises.The bulk of lands of type when reclamation amendment to type C, corresponding to inside the Pulau Petak area of South Kalimantan [8].
The monotonous swampland is split per the peak and period of inundation, consisting of shallow, middle, and deep monotonous swamplands.Shallow monotonous swamplands with inundation height below three months; middle monotonous swamplands with inundation height of 50-100 cm for three to six months; deep monotonous swamplands with inundation height over 100 cm for more than 6 months [11] (figure 2).The determination of rice varieties in recurrent event swampland might different from in monotonous swamp land, considering the various limiting factors.
The fundamental issue in tidal swampland is exceptionally high acidity of soil and water, a lack of macro (P, K) and micro nutrients (Zn, Cu, Bo), and a high level of iron (Fe), sulfate (SO4), and sulfide (H2S) that is harmful to plants.Whereas for monotonous swamplands, the most drawback is water fluctuations that are tough to predict, as a result of they're usually influenced by water from upstream areas [3].Resulted by [12] reported that the water conditions in monotonous swamplands are extremely passionate about hydro-topographic conditions, rainfall, and native water levels.This condition causes the determination of the proper planting time to be somewhat tough to predict in monotonous swamplands.Therefore, the choice of vaieties for tidal swampland is additional directed at varieties that have tolerance to soil acidity and iron toxicity [13] and [14], whereas varieties for monotonous swampland are directed towards that have tolerance to drought and inundation stress [12].

Climate change and its impact on rice production in swamplands
The primary challenges in developing tidal swampland for agriculture are the land's biophysical conditions (particularly water and soil fertility issues), climate change, social conditions, limited facilities and infrastructure, and policies that do not encourage the improvement of sub-optimal land use.The biophysical state of tidal swampland is dominated by extremely high soil and water acidity, a lack of macro (P, K) and small nutrients (Zn, Cu, Bo), and a high concentration of iron (Fe), sulfate (SO4), and hydrogen sulfide (H2S), all of which are toxic to plants [16].In fresh opened land with very acidic soil acidity (pH<4.5)and a fairly high Fe 2+ content (300-400 ppm) [2], high yielding rice cultivation in that location is rather successful, due to biophysical stress is very heavy land.Local rice can still adapt quite well, although the yield is low.Therefore, rice farmers in tidal swampland generally grow local rice, because of its good adaptability and low production inputs, so production costs are also low.Climate change might pose a severe danger to agricultural productivity and create new challenges for food producing property and agricultural production systems in general.The state of numerous climate components whose size and/or intensity tend to modify or diverge from the dynamics and average conditions, in a specific direction (trend) (increasing or decreasing).Human activities (anthropogenic) that have resulted in increased emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) such as CO2, methane (CH4), NO2, and CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) have been the primary cause of climate change for almost a century.
The general tips for adapting to global climate change in the agricultural sector [17] state that the effects of climate change on the agricultural sector are multidimensional, beginning with resources, agricultural infrastructure, and agricultural production systems, and progressing to aspects of food security and self-sufficiency, as well as the welfare of farmers and farmers society in general.The influence is divided into two indicators: susceptibility and effect.Vulnerability to climate change may be defined as a condition that limits the capacity of organisms (people, plants, and animals) to adapt and/or perform physiological/biological, developmental/phenological activities, growth and production, and reproduction optimally (naturally) as a result of global climate change.The impact of climate change may be a disruption or state of loss and gain, both physically, socially, and economically, as a result of climate change stress.Global climate change causes changes in precipitation patterns and extreme weather events, as well as increases in air temperature, water level, and periodic event waves.
Changes in rainfall patterns and extreme weather events have a significant impact on agricultural productivity.Food crop vulnerability is tightly linked to land use systems and soil qualities, cropping patterns, and technologies for managing soil, water, plants, and variety [18].As a result, the sensitivity of food crops to rainfall patterns can influence the amount planted and harvested, productivity, and yield quality.Extreme weather events, such as El Nino and La Nina, cause: (a) crop failure, a decrease in planting index (PI), which results in lower productivity and production, (b) damage to agricultural land resources, (c) an increase in frequency, area, and weight/drought intensity, (d) exaggerated humidity, and (e) an increase in the intensity of plant gadfly organisms [19].
Droughts, floods, and alterations in rainfall patterns caused by significant temperature change reduce food crop productivity, notably rice production.Climate change, particularly El Nino, is predicted to increase the planted area of those vulnerable to drought, particularly lowland rice, from 0.3-1.4% to 3.1-7.8%,while the realm consequences puso due to drought accumulated from 0.04-0.41% to 0.04-1.87%,according to IAARD analysis.Drought events occur three times every four years in lowland rice, particularly in Java, and often increase strongly in El Nino years, whereas flood events occur 2-3 times per year and typically increase sharply in La Nina years [20].Accumulated flood intensity can indirectly have an effect on rice production because of increased attacks by plant blighter organisms, love golden snails [21] and brown homopterous insects [22].The analysis findings from Indonesian Swampland Agricultural Research Institute (ISARI) in 2012 revealed that the assault of tungro, rat, and stem borer rose when the amount of downfall during the time of year surpassed 200 millimetres.Brown planthopper assaults rise with 100-150 mm of rainfall, but blast illness increases with rainfall more than 200 mm [23].La-Nina caused a rise within the space of flood-prone cropping, from 0.75-2.68% to 0.97-2.99%,and an increase in the area of rice crops that did not harvest (puso) thanks to flooding from 0.24-0 .73% to 8.7-13.8%.In aggregate, potential global climate change is calculable to scale back national rice production from 2.45-5.0%to quite 10% [24].On the opposite hand, shifts in rain patterns will cause shifts in planting times, seasons, and cropping patterns that successively can reduce the rice cropping index.
Temperature raises the rate of transpiration, which affects agricultural production [25], increases water consumption, accelerates fruit/seed ripening, reduces yield quality, and promotes the growth of many pests and diseases.According to the Director General of IRRI, each 1oC increase in temperature reduces rice yield by 8-10%.Tschirley's analytical results [26] shown that if the temperature goes over 4 o C, agricultural production drop by up to 20%.According to KP3I [27], a rise in temperature caused by an increase in greenhouse gas concentration will affect agricultural production.If the rate of conversion of paddy fields is 0.77% per year and the cropping index does not rise, rice output at the district level might fall by 42,500-162,500 tons in 2025.A rise in temperature has an extra impact on population and pest and disease assaults, especially if it is followed by an increase in air humidity.The effect of rising water levels on rice output reduction due to increased salt.According to [28], salinity levels less than 2.0 dS.m -1 had no effect on rice production.If the salinity rises above two dS.m -1 , rice yield will fall by about 10% for every 1 dS.m -1 increase.
Several high yielding varieties (HYVs) released by IAARD were submergence tolerant, including Inpara 3 which was tolerant to 7 days and Inpara 4 and Inpara 5 which were tolerant to 14 days during the early growth phase.Drought-tolerant rice HYVs are produced to mitigate the effects of the protracted dry season.Variety Inpago 5 is a high yielding upland rice variety that is drought resistant and capable of generating 6 t.ha -1 .Another advantage of this variety is that it is resistant to several races of blast disease, the major disease of upland rice.Variety Inpari 10 is a new high yielding lowland rice variety that is drought tolerant with a yield potential of 7 t.ha -1 , has sturdy stems to resist lodging, and is resistant to brown stem leafhopper (WBC) and bacterial leaf blight (BLB) strain III.Furthermore, IAARD has released four high yielding varieties of extremely early maturity rice, namely Inpari 1, Inpari 11, Inpari 12, and Inpari 13.The use of such early maturing types will eliminate the fear of drought.

Submergence tolerant rice varieties
Planting submergence tolerant rice in swampland is frequently done by mistreating high yielding submergence tolerant rice types such as Inpara 3, 4, and 5 or Inpari 29 and 30.Inpara 3 can endure submergence for six days, whereas Inparas 4 and 5 can each withstand submergence for fourteen days.Similarly, Inpari 29 and Inpari-30 Ciherang Sub-1 will sustain submergence for 14 and 15 days, respectively [29].During the la Nina, it is not recommended to plant alternative Inpara varieties, including the Inpari selection variety other than Inpari 29 and 30, in middle monotonous swamplands.theInpari selection variety other than Inpari 29 and 30 during the la Nina in middle monotonous swamplands.
Inpari 29, Inpari 30 Ciherang Sub-1, Inpara 3, Inpara 4, and Inpara 5 are submergence tolerant cultivars, whereas Inpari 34 and Inpari 35 are salinity tolerant types.In comparison to other Inpari cultivars, Inpari 34 Salin Agritan and Inpari 35 Salin Agritan are salt resistant during the seedling stage.The advantages of the two types are high yields of 9.5 and 9.6 t.ha-1, resistance to blast disease, and moderate resistance to WBC pests.Inpara 5, a periodic event tidal swamp rice variety, is salt resistant and has a high production potential of around 7.2 t. ha -1 .
The bulk of good yielding types and indigenous varieties of rice cannot be grown in deep monotonous swampland.The Indonesia Swampland Agricultural Research Institute (previously LP3 Banjarmasin) has introduced deep water rice cultivars Tapus, Alabio, and Nagara.These three types were planted in deep fields and collected effectively by boat or canoe.These three varieties were planted in deep fields and successfully harvested by boat or canoe.These varities can extend and kind stem nodes and can be planted in deep fields (150 cm inundation with a 1 to 3.5 cm per day rise in inundation).Despite the limited variety of rice that will be planted in deep fields, this land is frequently a boon to local communities when El Nino strikes.This region was extremely rich for rice growing during El Nino, so it may become a store for rice across alternate fields of drought and puso agriculture (Table 1) [29].The selection of rice cultivars in swamplands is unique because to the peculiar features of swamplands.Swampland is characterized by tidal and monotonous swampland.Tidal land is divided into four land typologies based on the kind of soil, including prospective land, acid sulfate, saline, and peat.Physical issues with land, especially in acid sulphate soils (high Fe and Al, low pH), saline (salinity), and peat (lack of Cu and Zn micro elements) [8].

Conclusion
Climate change is extremely prestigiou on rice production, as well as in swamps.Reducing production by drought between 0.3-1.4% to 3.1-7.8%.The real consequences puso because to drought raised from 0.04-0.41% to 0.04-1.87%.In aggregate, potential global climate change is calculable to scale back national rice production from 2.45-5.0%to over 10%.The utilization of high yielding rice cultivars that are tolerant of submergence and drought inside the swamplands will reduce the drop in grain rice yields caused by submergence and drought, especially during the la-nina and el-nino seasons.

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Classification of freshwater swampland based on inundation height and length[15]