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The 2nd International Conference on Innovative Materials, Structures and Technologies (IMST 2015) took place in Riga, Latvia from 30th September - 2nd October, 2015. The first event of the conference series, dedicated to the 150th anniversary of the Faculty of Civil Engineering of Riga Technical University, was held in 2013. Following the established tradition, the aim of the conference was to promote and discuss the latest results of industrial and academic research carried out in the following engineering fields: analysis and design of advanced structures and buildings; innovative, ecological and energy efficient building materials; maintenance, inspection and monitoring methods; construction technologies; structural management; sustainable and safe transport infrastructure; and geomatics and geotechnics. The conference provided an excellent opportunity for leading researchers, representatives of the industrial community, engineers, managers and students to share the latest achievements, discuss recent advances and highlight the current challenges.

IMST 2015 attracted over 120 scientists from 24 countries. After rigorous reviewing, over 80 technical papers were accepted for publication in the conference proceedings. On behalf of the organizing committee I would like to thank all the speakers, authors, session chairs and reviewers for their efficient and timely effort.

The 2nd International Conference on Innovative Materials, Structures and Technologies was organized by the Faculty of Civil Engineering of Riga Technical University with the support of the Latvia State Research Programme under the grant agreement "INNOVATIVE MATERIALS AND SMART TECHNOLOGIES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY, IMATEH". I would like to express sincere gratitude to Juris Smirnovs, Dean of the Faculty of Civil Engineering, and Andris Chate, manager of the Latvia State Research Programme.

Finally, I would like to thank all those who helped to make this event happen. Special thanks go to Diana Bajare, Laura Sele, Liga Radina and Jana Galilejeva for their major contribution to organizing the conference and to the literary editor Tatjana Smirnova and technical editor Daira Erdmane for their hard work on the conference proceedings.

All papers published in this volume of IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering have been peer reviewed through processes administered by the proceedings Editors. Reviews were conducted by expert referees to the professional and scientific standards expected of a proceedings journal published by IOP Publishing.

This paper analyzes the effects of two different aggressive environments, concentrated ammonium nitrate solution (480 g/dm³) and sodium sulphate solution (50 g/dm³), on the structure and mechanical strength of fly ash based geopolymers. Geopolymer samples were subjected to the aggressive solutions over a period of 365 days. It was found that exposure to the NH₄NO₃ and Na₂SO₄ solutions caused small decrease in geopolymer strength (10-20%). The most valuable insight into the structural changes caused by testing of the geopolymer samples in the aggressive solutions was provided by means of ²⁹Si MAS NMR. It was found that the immersion of geopolymer samples in the NH₄NO₃ solution caused breaking of Si-O-Al bonds in the aluminosilicate geopolymer gel structure. On the other hand, treatment of the geopolymer samples with the Na₂SO₄ solution resulted in breaking of Si-O-Si bonds in geopolymer gel structure and leaching of Si. It was concluded that the major changes in the geopolymer structure were associated with the changes in the pH values of aggressive solutions during the testing.

Alkali activation technology can be applied for a wide range of alumo-silicates to produce innovative materials with various areas of application. Most researches focuse on the application of alumo-silicate materials in building industry as cement binder replacement to produce mortar and concrete [1]. However, alkali activation technology offers high potential also in biotechnologies [2]. In the processes where certain pH level, especially alkaline environment, must be ensured, alkali activated materials can be applied. One of such fields is water treatment systems where high level pH (up to pH 10.5) ensures efficient removal of water pollutants such as manganese [3]. Previous investigations had shown that alkali activation technology can be applied to calcined clay powder and aluminium scrap recycling waste as a foam forming agent to create porous alkali activated materials. This investigation focuses on the structural investigation of calcined kaolin and illite clay alkali activation processes. Chemical and mineralogical composition of both clays were determined and structural investigation of alkali activated materials was made by using XRD, DTA, FTIR analysis; the microstructure of hardened specimens was observed by SEM. Physical properties of the obtained material were determined. Investigation indicates the essential role of chemical composition of the clay used in the alkali activation process, and potential use of the obtained material in water treatment systems.

The article reports on the study of thermal stability of alkali-activated aluminium- silicate composites (ASC) at temperature 800-1100°C. ASC were prepared by using calcined kaolinite clay, aluminium scrap recycling waste, lead-silicate glass waste and quartz sand. As alkali activator, commercial sodium silicate solution modified with an addition of sodium hydroxide was used. The obtained alkali activation solution had silica modulus M_s=1.67. Components of aluminium scrap recycling waste (aluminium nitride (AlN) and iron sulphite (FeSO₃)) react in the alkali media and create gases - ammonia and sulphur dioxide, which provide the porous structure of the material [1].

Changes in the chemical composition of ASC during heating were identified and quantitatively analysed by using DTA/TG, dimension changes during the heating process were determined by using HTOM, pore microstructure was examined by SEM, and mineralogical composition of ASC was determined by XRD. The density of ASC was measured in accordance with EN 1097-7.

ASC with density around 560 kg/m³ and heat resistance up to 1100°C with shrinkage less than 5% were obtained. The intended use of this material is the application as an insulation material for industrial purposes at elevated temperatures.

The alkali activation of blast furnace slag has the potential to reduce the environmental impact of cementitious materials and to be applied in geographic zones where weather is a factor that negatively affects performance of materials based on Ordinary Portland Cement. The scientific literature provides many examples of alkali activated slag with high compressive strengths; however research into the durability and resistance to aggressive environments is still necessary for applications in harsh weather conditions. In this study two design mixes of blast furnace slag with mine tailings were activated with a potassium based solution. The design mixes were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, BET analysis and compressive strength testing. Freeze-thaw testing up to 100 freeze-thaw cycles was performed in 10% road salt solution. Our findings included compressive strength of up to 100 MPa after 28 days of curing and 120 MPa after freeze-thaw testing. The relationship between pore size, compressive strength, and compressive strength after freeze-thaw was explored.

The alkaline activation of aluminosiliceous industrial by-products such as blast furnace slag and fly ash is widely known to yield binders whose properties make them comparable to or even stronger and more durable than ordinary Portland cement. The present paper discusses activation fundamentals (such as the type and concentration of alkaline activator and curing conditions) as well as the structure of the cementitious gels formed (C-A-S-H, N-A-S-H). The durability and strength of these systems make these materials apt for use in many industrial applications, such as precast concrete elements (masonery blocks, railroad sleepers), protective coatings for materials with low fire ratings and lightweight elements.

Hybrid alkaline cements are multi-component systems containing a high percentage of mineral additions (fly ash, blast furnace slag), low proportions (<30%) of Portland clinker and scarce amounts of alkaline activators. The substantially lower amount of clinker needed to manufacture these binders in comparison to ordinary Portland cement is both economically and ecologically beneficial. Their enormous versatility in terms of the raw materials used has made them the object of considerable interest. The present study explored the mechanical strength of binary blends mixes; B1= 20% clinker (CK) + 80% fly ash (FA) and B2=20% clinker + 80% blast furnace slag (BFS), both hydrated in the presence and absence of an alkaline activator specifically designed for this purpose. The use of the activator enhanced the development of early age strength considerably. All the hydrated matrices were characterised with XRD, SEM/EDX and (²⁹Si and ²⁷Al) NMR. The use of the alkaline activator generated reaction products consisting primarily of a mix of gels ((N,C)-A-S-H and C-A-S-H) whose respective proportions were found to depend upon system composition and initial reactivity.

A lot of Reinforced Concrete (RC) structures in Syria have suffered from reinforcement corrosion which shortened significantly their service lives. Probably, one of the most effective approaches to make concrete structures more durable and concrete industry on the whole - more sustainable is to substitute pozzolan for a portion of Portland cement (PC). Syria is relatively rich in natural pozzolan. In the study, in order to predict the corrosion resistance from compressive strength, concrete specimens were produced with seven cement types: one plain Portland cement (control) and six natural pozzolan-based cements with replacement levels ranging from 10 to 35%. The development of the compressive strengths of concrete cube specimens with curing time has been investigated. Chloride penetrability has also been evaluated for all concrete mixes after three curing times of 7, 28 and 90 days. The effect on resistance of concrete against damage caused by corrosion of the embedded reinforcing steel has been investigated using an accelerated corrosion test by impressing a constant anodic potential for 7, 28 and 90 days curing. Test results have been statistically analysed and correlation equations relating compressive strength and corrosion performance have been developed. Significant correlations have been noted between the compressive strength and both rapid chloride penetrability and corrosion initiation times. So, this prediction could be reliable in concrete mix design when using natural pozzolan as cement replacement.

This study aims to reduce CO₂ discharged from the cement and concrete industries by effective use of industrial by-products, such as fly ash, blast furnace slag, and so on. In this paper, the properties of concrete containing large amount of industrial by-products and very small amount of alkaline activator including cement or sludge from ready mixed concrete plant are analyzed. As the result, it was confirmed that concretes containing large amount of industrial by-products can achieve sufficient compressive strength. However, these concretes showed poor frost resistance. It was thought that the reason was coarsening of air void system and this caused their poor frost resistance. Therefore, in order to micronize the air void system and improve frost resistance, the combination of air entraining agent and antifoaming agent was applied. By this method, it was confirmed that the frost resistance of some these concrete improved.

In this study, other properties of these concretes, such as fresh properties and other durability were evaluated and it was confirmed that these concretes show sufficient properties.

Agricultural wastes are dumped in landfills or left on land in which they constitute nuisance. This study presents the results of investigation of strength characteristics of reinforced laterized concrete beams with cement partially replaced with corn cob (agricultural wastes) ash (CCA). Laterized concrete specimen of 25% laterite and 75% sharp sand were made by blending cement with corn cob ash at 0 to 40% in steps of 10%. A concrete mix ratio of 1:2:4 was used to cast 54 cubes of 150×150×150mm size and 54 beams of dimension 750×150×150mm.

The results show that the consistency and setting time of cement increased as the percentage replacement of cement with CCA increased while the workability and density of concrete decreased as the percentage of CCA increased. There was a decrease in compressive strength when laterite was introduced to the concrete from 25.04 to 22.96N/mm² after 28 days and a continual reduction in strength when CCA was further added from 10% to 40% at steps of 10%. Generally, the beam specimens exhibited majorly shear failure with visible diagonal cracks extending from support points to the load points. The corresponding central deflection in beams, due to two points loading, increased as the laterite was added to the concrete mix but reduced and almost approaching that of the control as 10% CCA was added. The deflection then increased as the CCA content further increased to 20%, 30% and 40% in the mix. It was also noted that the deflection of all percentage replacement including 40% CCA is less than the standard recommended maximum deflection of the beam. The optimal flexural strength occurred with 10% CCA content.

The research presents the dimensional and structural characteristics of nonhydrational hardening binders - nanostructured binders. Rational areas of their use in composites for construction purposes are given. The paper presents the results of the development of natural hardening foam concrete and aerated autoclaved concrete for thermal insulating and construction and thermal insulating purposes. Thus nanostructured binder (NB) in the composites was used as a primary binder and a high reactive modifier.

Alumina silicate cenospheres (CS) is a significant waste material from power plants that use a coal. Use CS as Portland cement replacement material gives opportunity to control physical and mechanical properties and makes a product lighter and more cost-effective. In the frame of this study, Portland cement paste samples were produced by adding CS in the concentration range from 0 to 40 volume %. Water uptake of hardened samples was checked and pore size distribution by using the mercury porosimetry was determined. In a cold climate where the temperature often falls below 0 °C, it is important to avoid the amount of micrometer sized pores in the final structure and to decrease water absorption capacity of material. In winter conditions, water fills such pores and causes additional stresses to their walls by expansion while freezing. It was found that generally water uptake capacity for cement paste samples decreased up to 20% by increasing the concentration of CS up to 40 volume %, at the same time, the volume of micrometer sized opened pores increases.

Pultrusion is one of many composite manufacturing techniques and one of the most efficient methods for producing fiber reinforced polymer composite parts with a constant cross-section. Numerical simulation is helpful for understanding the manufacturing process and developing scientific means for the pultrusion tooling design. Numerical technique based on the finite element method has been developed for the simulation of pultrusion processes. It uses the general purpose finite element software ANSYS Mechanical. It is shown that the developed technique predicts the temperature and cure profiles, which are in good agreement with those published in the open literature.

This article demonstrates the possibility of the application of joint principles to develop test programs for national approval or European Technical Assessments of FRP reinforcement for concrete. The limits of different systems are shown, which until now have been approved in Germany.

The deterioration of cement-based materials used for the civil infrastructure has led to the realization that cement-based materials, such as concrete, must be improved in terms of their properties and durability. Leaching of calcium ions increases the porosity of cement- based materials, consequently resulting in a negative effect on durability since it provides an entry for aggressive harmful ions, causing corrosion of concrete. The use supplementary cementing composite materials have been reported to improve the resistance of concrete to deterioration by aggressive chemicals. The paper is focused on the investigation of the influence of biogenic acid attack on the cement composites affected by bacteria Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans. The concrete specimens with 65 wt. % addition of antimicrobial activated granulated blast furnace slag as durability increasing factor as well as without any addition were studied. The experiments proceeded during 150 days under model laboratory conditions. The pH values and chemical composition of leachates were measured after each 30- day cycle. The calcium and silicon contents in leachates were evaluated using X - ray fluorescence method (XRF). Summarizing the results, the 65% wt. addition of antimicrobial activated granulated blast furnace slag was not confirmed to be more resistant.

The present work contains the results of experimental study on properties of insulating refractory concrete created on the basis of Portland cement (PC) binder and modified with microsilica (MS). The experimental compositions were made using Portland cement, lightweight aggregates (expanded clay and vermiculite) and microsilica additives. It was established that MS additives enable significant improvement of mechanical properties and thermal shock resistance of PC-based insulating concrete with values comparable to insulating refractory concrete based on calcium aluminate cement.

The increasing freight volumes and the speed of transport, as well as increasing demands with regard to safety have made the search and development of new anti-friction materials a topical task. The main requirements to the bearing assemblies include reliability, durability, simplicity and ease of maintenance. The paper considers the features of the manufacture of braking sliding sleeves/ bushings for transport vehicles made from sintered low-alloy powder materials based on Fe-C-Ni with Ni and Mo contents of 0.3%. The paper presents data on the microstructure of the sintered samples of the products and research of some physical and mechanical properties. Surface quality and friction coefficient were evaluated by surface profiling and tribological tests, correspondingly. Particular attention is paid to the use of ultrasonic testing for quality control of the products.

The paper presents an investigation of lightweight concretes properties, based on granulated foamglass (GFG-LWC) aggregates. The application of granulated foamglass (GFG) in concrete might significantly reduce the volume of waste glass and enhance the recycling industry in order to improve environmental performance. The conducted experiments showed high strength and thermal properties for GFG-LWC. However, the use of GFG in concrete is associated with the risk of harmful alkali-silica reactions (ASR). Thus, one of the main aims was to study ASR manifestation in GFG-LWC. It was found that the lightweight concrete based on porous aggregates, and ordinary concrete, have different a mechanism of ASR. In GFG-LWC, microstructural changes, partial destruction of granules, and accumulation of silica hydro-gel in pores were observed. According to the existing methods of analysis of ASR manifestation in concrete, sample expansion was measured, however, this method was found to be not appropriate to indicate ASR in concrete with porous aggregates. Microstructural analysis and testing of the concrete strength are needed to evaluate the damage degree due to ASR. Low-alkali cement and various pozzolanic additives as preventive measures against ASR were chosen. The final composition of the GFG-LWC provides very good characteristics with respect to compressive strength, thermal conductivity and durability. On the whole, the potential for GFG-LWC has been identified.

Steel fibre-reinforced concrete (SFRC) is widely used in the structural elements of buildings: industrial floors, slabs, walls, foundation, etc. When a load is applied to a fibre- reinforced composite consisting of a low-modulus matrix reinforced with high-strength, high- modulus fibres, the plastic flow of the matrix under stress transfers the load to the fibre; this results in high-strength, high-modulus material which determines the stiffness and stress of the composite. In this study the equivalent flexural strength, equivalent flexural ratio R_e,3 and the compressing strength of SFRC are investigated. Notched test specimens with five different dosages of steel fibres (20, 25, 30, 35, 40 kg/m³) were prepared using industrial concrete. Determination of flexural tension strength was carried out according to the EU norm EVS-EN 14651:2005+A1:2007. The equivalent flexural strength and subsequent equivalent flexural ratio R_e,3 of SFRC with a dosage of 20, 25, 30, 35 kg/m³ similar to their average values and with a dosage of 40 kg/m³ were 31% higher than their average values. The compressive strength of the steel fibre-reinforced concrete was slightly higher compared to plain concrete, except specimens with the dosage of 40 kg/m³ where the increase was 30%.

The article analyzes the effect of plasticizer (based on polycarboxilates) amount (0.3 - 1.2% wt. of cement) on the rheological and hydration properties of two Portland cements pastes: CEM II/A-S 42.5N and CEM II/A-LL 42.5N. Increase of plasticizer amount reduces viscosity of CEM II/A-LL 42.5N cement paste from 3 to 12 times, where viscosity of CEM II/A-S 42.5N cement paste reduces from 5 to 20 times. The optimum plasticizer dose (0.3%) in case of CEM II/A-S 42.5N and (1.2%) in case of CEM II/A-LL 42.5N was established. Calorimetry studies have shown that plasticizer reduces the wetting heat release rate in CEM II/A-LL 42.5N cement twice and in CEM II/A-S 42.5N cement - by 25%. Plasticizer prolongs the maximum heat release rate time by 16 h in CEM II/A-LL 42.5N samples and reduces heat release rate by 19%. In CEM II/A-S 42.5N cement samples plasticizer prolongs maximum heat release rate time by 14.5 h and increases heat release rate by 15%. The goal of this study is to analyze the effect of the dosage of the most widely used plasticizer on solubility characteristics, rheological and hydration properties of two cements CEM II/A-S 42.5N and CEM II/A-LL 42.5N to establish the optimum dose of plasticizer in cements pastes.

In this paper, two methods consisting of triaxial water permeability and water penetration were used to evaluate the changes occurring in the pores of clay concretes during the tests. Triaxial permeability is generally used for concrete with higher permeability while concretes with very low permeability are suited for the penetration method.

Clay concrete specimens of 0 to 40% clay content were used in the study. The concrete mixes had water-to-cement ratios (w/c) of 0.70, 0.75, 0.80, 0.85, and the cementitious content 380 and 450 kg/m³. Results show that concrete gains moisture during wetting at a much faster rate than loses it during subsequent drying. This could be explained by the contribution of suction pressure created upon drying. When water penetration pressure is applied, more water is driven into pore space that could be responsible for changing the network of the voids. Pore structure during drying may certainly be different in size and shape than its form during wetting, leading to a consequent effect on the permeability of the clay concretes. The modification could be one reason why the moisture gain percentage in clay concretes was higher than in normal concretes.

This paper presents an investigation on the effect of clay addition on water permeability and air permeability of concretes. Clay concrete mixes consisted of 0 to 40% clay content incorporated as cement replacement. Flow methods using triaxial cells and air permeameters were used for measuring the injected water and air flows under pressure. It was found that the higher the clay content in the mixture, the greater the permeability. At higher water-cement ratios (w/c), the paste matrix is less dense and easily allows water to ingress into concrete. But at high clay contents of 30 to 40% clay, the variation in permeability was significantly diminished among different concrete mixtures. It was confirmed that air permeability results were higher than the corresponding water permeability values when all permeability coefficients were converted to intrinsic permeability values.

Sandwich panel structures with stiff face sheets and cellular cores are widely used to support dynamic loads. Combining face sheets made of carbon fibre reinforced plastics (CFRPs) with an aluminium pyramidal truss improves the damping performance of the structure due to viscoelastic character of CRFP composites. To predict the damping characteristics of the pyramidal truss core sandwich panel the strain energy method is adopted. The procedure for evaluating the damping of the sandwich panel was performed using commercial finite element software NASTRAN and MATLAB. Non-contact vibration tests were performed on the real sandwich panels in order to extract the modal characteristics and compare them with the numerical predictions.

Hemp is a controversial bio-product with promising performance as a sustainable building material. The fact that hemp is an organic, natural product makes it highly relevant in the present reality of global pollution and struggle for coping with planetary warming. The construction sector is among the leading industries when it comes to energy consumption, release of CO₂; it is responsible for great amounts of waste and pollution. The research and implementation of sustainable building materials is a crucial necessity in the modern times. Hemp (Cannabis sativa) is an agricultural crop that can be used as a building material in combination with conventional or alternative binders. Hemp composites have many advantages as a building material, but it is not load-bearing and must be used in combination with a loadbearing wooden frame. Despite this disadvantage, hemp composite materials offer several of appropriate properties, namely: low density, good thermal insulation, antiseptic and breathability. This paper studies the possibility of preparing the lightweight composites based on hemp hurds (treated and/or untreated) as a filler and alternative MgO-cement as a binder. Properties of hemp composites are characterized by mechanical and physical methods.

Rammed earth is well known for its vapour diffusion properties, its ability to regulate humidity within the built environment. Rammed earth is also an aesthetically iconic material such as marble or granite and therefore is preferably left exposed. However exposed rammed earth is often coated with silane/siloxane water repellents or the structure is modified architecturally (large roof overhangs) to accommodate for the hydrophilic nature of the material. This paper sets out to find out optimal hydrophobicity for rammed earth based on natural composite fibres and surface coating without adversely affecting the vapour diffusivity of the material. The material is not required to be waterproof, but should resist at least driving rain. In order to evaluate different approaches to increase hydrophobicity of rammed earth surface, peat fibres and four types of repellents were used.

Nowadays, utilization of wastes from agriculture, paper production and building construction is becoming increasingly important due to environmental concerns. Material recycling is a growing trend in the development of building materials; some waste materials can be used in construction as secondary raw materials. The demand for natural non-renewable raw materials is increasing rapidly, therefore, wastes as resources for secondary raw materials can be a good substitute in the production processes. In this way, the shortage of natural raw materials can be supplemented. Construction industry uses secondary raw materials very effectively thereby substituting virgin materials. One of the interesting secondary raw materials is waste coming from natural plant fibres. In this paper, characterization of cellulose fibres from wood pulp, waste paper and their use in cement composites are considered. Technically important parameters of hardened composites are determined and tested (density, water absorbability and compressive strength).

Recent development trends largely look for possibilities of a wider use of natural materials and local resources. In this perspective, the use of organic rich lake sediment - sapropel - as a binding material in line with other environmentally friendly filling materials can be considered as a challenge. Sapropel itself is a valuable resource with multiple areas of application, for example, medicine, veterinary, agriculture, livestock farming, balneology, cosmetic applications, construction, and its application options have been widely studied in the 20th century in the Baltic countries, Ukraine and Russia. Birch wood fibre and sanding dust, hemp shives, 'Aerosil' are used as a filler and three types of sapropel are used as a binder in making composites. After material preparation and curing, physical and mechanical properties - density, thermal conductivity, compressive and flexural strength, were determined and compared to the data in the literature, and the opportunities to use them in the ecological construction were considered. The obtained results give insight into possibilities to use sapropel as a raw material, which can be considered as prospective material for construction materials and design products.

Adequate heat is one of the prerequisites for human wellbeing; therefore, building insulation is required in places where the outside temperature is not suitable for living. The climate change, with its rising temperatures and longer dry periods, promotes enlargement of the regions with conditions more convenient for hardwood species than for softwood species. Birch (Betula pendula) is the most common hardwood species in Latvia. The aim of this work was to obtain birch fibres from wood residues of plywood production and to form low-density thermal insulation boards. Board formation and production was done in the presence of water; natural binder, fire retardant and fungicide were added in different concentrations. Board properties such as density, transportability or resistance to particulate loss, thermal conductivity and reaction to fire were investigated. This study included thermal insulation boards with the density of 102-120 kg/m³; a strong correlation between density and the binder amount was found. Transportability also improved with the addition of a binder, and 0.1-0.5% of the binder was the most appropriate amount for this purpose. The measured thermal conductivity was in the range of 0.040-0.043 W/(m·K). Fire resistance increased with adding the fire retardant. We concluded that birch fibres are applicable for thermal insulation board production, and it is possible to diversify board properties, changing the amount of different additives.

Biocomposites based on natural fibres as organic filler have been studied for several years because traditional building materials such as concrete are increasingly being replaced by advanced composite materials. Natural fibres are a potential replacement of glass fibres in composite materials. Inherent advantages such as low density, biodegradability and comparable specific mechanical properties make natural fibres an attractive option. However, limitations such as poor thermal stability, moisture absorption and poor compatibility with matrix are challenges that need to be resolved. The primary objective of this research was to study the effect of surface treatment on properties of hemp hurds like a natural lignocellulosic material and composites made thereof. Industrial hemp fibre is the one of the most suitable fibres for use in composite materials because of its good specific properties, as well as it being biologically degradable and CO₂ neutral. Improving interfacial bonding between fibres and matrix is an important factor in using hemp fibres as reinforcement in composites. In order to improve interfacial bonding, modifications can be made to the hemp fibres to remove non- cellulosic compounds, separate hemp fibres from their bundles, and modify the fibre surface. This paper contains the comparison of FTIR spectra caused by combination of physical and chemical treatment of hemp material with unmodified sample. Modification of hemp hurds was carried out by NaOH solution and by ultrasonic treatment (deionized water and NaOH solution were used as the cleaning mediums).

One of the main challenges that construction industry faces today is how to address the demands for more sustainable, environmentally friendly and carbon neutral construction materials and building upkeep processes. One of the answers to these demands is lime-hemp concrete (LHC) building materials - carbon negative materials that have sufficient thermal insulation capabilities to be used as thermal insulation materials for new as well as for existing buildings. But one problem needs to be overcome before these materials can be used on a large scale - current manufacturing technology allows these materials to be used only as self-bearing thermal insulation material with large labour intensity in the manufacturing process. In order to lower the labour intensity and allow the material to be used in wider applications, a LHC block and board production is necessary, which in turn calls for the binders different from the classically used ones, as they show insufficient mechanical strength for this new use. The particular study focuses on alternative binders produced using gypsum-cement compositions ensuring they are usable in outdoor applications together with hemp shives. Physical, mechanical, thermal and water absorption properties of hemp concrete with various binders are addressed in the current study.

Building Codes in Europe stipulate strict thermal performance criteria which any traditional rammed earth recipe cannot meet. This does not infer that the material itself is inferior; it has many other face saving attributes such as low embodied energy, high workability, sound insulation, fire resistance, aesthetics, high diffusivity and thermal accumulation properties. Integrated insulation is experimented with, to try achieve a 0.22 [W/(m².K)] overall coefficient of heat transfer for walls required by 2015 Slovak standards, without using external insulation or using technologically complex interstitial insulation. This has the added aesthetic benefit of leaving the earth wall exposed to the external environment. Results evaluate the feasibility of this traditional approach.

The stability of indoor air parameters is a very important factor, essential for such institutions as museums, schools and hospitals. Nowadays the use of renewable energy for space heating became one of the top priorities in modern building design. The active and passive solar energy as well as heat pumps are widely used nowadays. However, such technologies have a limitation in cold climates and often are not able to cover maximal heating loads.

This paper is devoted to analysis of influence of building envelope's properties and outdoor air parameters on indoor air thermodynamic parameters stability in winter time. It presents analysis of thermal mass impact on building energy performance and indoor air parameter stability in cold climate. The results show that the thermal mass of building envelope is able to cover extreme winter temperatures as well as in case of emergency heat supply break.

Five experimental test buildings have been built in Riga, Latvia. They are identical except external walls for which different mainly regional building materials are used. Calculated U-values of the other walls, floor and ceiling are the same for each test building. Initial moisture influences the relative humidity of indoor air, which can be higher in the initial time period; as a result, heat transmittances are also very different and cause different heating/cooling energy consumption. Overheating risk in summer exists for test buildings with the smallest thermal inertia. Both summer and heating seasons have been analysed and differences between five test houses have been discussed in details.

This article examines thermal properties of lightweight block walls and their changes over the course of time. Three different types of lightweight blocks and two types of heat insulation are used in construction. Aeroc aerated concrete blocks are in use, as well as compacted LECA (Lightweight Expanded Clay Aggregate) Fibo blocks made from burned clay and Silbet blocks produced from oil shale ash. Expanded Thermisol EPS60F polystyrene plates and glass wool Isover OL-P plates are used for thermal insulation. The actual and computational values of thermal conductivity and the water draining properties of walls over time are compared in this article. Water draining from glass wool walls is relatively fast. Water-draining can take over a year in polystyrene insulated walls. All four wall constructions can be used as external walls, but care must be taken regarding the moisture content of the blocks during construction (the construction should be handled with care to minimise the moisture in the blocks), especially in polystyrene board-insulated walls.

Nowadays one of the possibilities to improve energy efficiency is the use of building elements with low air permeability, for example, sandwich panels with steel sheeting. However, these panels have one important disadvantage - a relatively small load-bearing capacity. This can be prevented by reinforcing the panel with antiseptized birch plywood ribs. For wood-based materials prediction of hygrothermal performance is important to avoid rot. Currently the methodology of ISO 13788:2012 is widely used assuming that moisture flux passes through the building envelope of any material. This assumption is not completely accurate with regard to a closed structure where no penetration of ambient humidity is possible. Therefore, in order to predict the distribution of moisture in such structure with the surfaces exposed to different temperatures and to assess the hazards of rot for plywood ribs, a methodology for closed building envelope is presented. To provide insight into expected results according to both methodologies, estimation for individual case with constant environmental conditions is given. According to the methodology for the closed building envelope no free water will occur. Therefore, it is believable that also no rot will be observed. This is contrary to the assessment according to the methodology of ISO 13788:2012, which predicts condensation.

Analysis of the literature shows that there are no methods or formulas to calculate the equilibrium time of scour near elliptical guide banks. In the formulas used in calculating the equilibrium time of scour at piers or abutments, different parameters are not taken into consideration. The differential equation of the bed sediment movement in clear-water was used and the method for computing the equilibrium time of scour near elliptical guide banks was elaborated. New hydraulic threshold criterion is proposed for the calculation of equilibrium time of scour. Analysis of the proposed method shows the influence of the following parameters on the equilibrium time of scour: contraction rate of the flow, Froude number, bed layering, sediment movement parameters, local flow modification, relative local and critical velocities ratio, and relative depth. Computer modeling results were compared with the equilibrium times of scour which were calculated by the presented method and they were in good agreement.

This paper discusses the evaluation of flood losses to buildings using loss curves. The objective of the research was to ascertain whether there is a relationship between the depth of flooding and the amount of unit loss set with regard to the impact of room dimensions. The research was conducted on a sample of 154 model situations for two different room shapes. The results confirm that the depth of flooding, considered in the context of the impact of room dimensions, has an influence over the accuracy of setting the amount of loss, and that the significance of this influence increases with increasing depth. These results can help achieve a more accurate evaluation of flood losses using loss curves or indicators when settling, for example, insurance claims filed in consequence of large-scale flooding.

There is an urgent necessity for a highly accurate and reliable geoid model to enable prompt determination of normal height with the use of GNSS coordinate determination due to the high precision requirements in geodesy, building and high precision road construction development. Additionally, the Latvian height system is in the process of transition from BAS- 77 (Baltic Height System) to EVRS2007 system. The accuracy of the geoid model must approach the precision of about ∼1 cm looking forward to the Baltic Rail and other big projects. The use of all the available and verified data sources is planned, including the use of enlarged set of GNSS/levelling data, gravimetric measurement data and, additionally, the vertical deflection measurements over the territory of Latvia. The work is going ahead stepwise. Just the issue of GNSS reference network stability is discussed. In order to achieve the ∼1 cm precision geoid, it is required to have a homogeneous high precision GNSS network as a basis for ellipsoidal height determination for GNSS/levelling points. Both the LatPos and EUPOS® - Riga network have been examined in this article.

Till 1 December, 2014, in Latvia the heights were determined in Baltic Normal Height System 1977. The national height system is determined by the Cabinet of Ministers and internal laws. Now for the change of the national height system to reconcile it with the European Vertical Reference System, amendments to the laws and regulations have been developed, but so far only the amendment to the Geospatial Information Law is in force, the amendment to the regulation of the Cabinet of Ministers is still not approved. This amendment declares the Latvia Height System based on the European Vertical Reference System in Latvia as the national height system.

For height transformation, there is a transformation formula for each European country. After calculations it is seen that height difference between Baltic Normal Height System 1977 and European Vertical Reference System depends on point location in the territory (coordinates). This unequal height difference between both height systems will cause unequal height values on border connection points between Baltic countries. The aim of the research is to evaluate the European Vertical Reference System in Latvia. To reach the aim the following tasks are set: 1) to evaluate the components of transformation formulas; 2) using the transformation formulas to calculate height differences between Baltic Normal Height System 1977 and the European Vertical Reference System realization EVRF2007 for the territory of Latvia and also between Baltic Normal Height System 1977 and the Latvia Normal Height System; 3) to get height differences in the European Vertical Reference System on the borderlines of Latvia - Estonia and Latvia - Lithuania.

The GPS observations of both Latvian permanent GNSS networks - EUPOS^®-Riga and LatPos, have been collected for a period of 8 years - from 2007 to 2014. Local surface displacements have been derived from the obtained coordinate time series eliminating different impact sources. The Bernese software is used for data processing. The EUREF Permanent Network (EPN) stations in the surroundings of Latvia are selected as fiducial stations. The results have shown a positive tendency of vertical displacements in the western part of Latvia - station heights are increasing, and negative velocities are observed in the central and eastern parts. Station vertical velocities are ranging in diapason of 4 mm/year. In the case of horizontal displacements, site velocities are up to 1 mm/year and mostly oriented to the south. The comparison of the obtained results with data from the deformation model NKG_RF03vel has been made. Additionally, the purpose of this study is to analyse GPS time series obtained using two different data processing strategies: Precise Point Positioning (PPP) and estimation of station coordinates relatively to the positions of fiducial stations also known as Differential GNSS.

Coastal area monitoring is a significant task in the national development and environmental protection. Study area of this work is the Baltic Sea Region, particularly focusing on the land cover changes in the coastal area from Cape Kolka to the Latvian-Lithuanian border. The aim of this research is to estimate and illustrate different examples of monitoring and mapping land cover changes in the coastal area using remotely sensed data - orthophoto, multispectral data and radar data. The results of the research include vector maps created from satellite images and comparison between different land cover value identification methods.

Development of photogrammetry has reached a new level due to the use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV). In Estonia, the main areas of use of UAVs are monitoring overhead power lines for energy companies and fields in agriculture, and estimating the use of stockpile in mining. The project was carried out by the order of the City of Tartu for future road construction. In this research, automation of UAV platform MUST Q aerial image processing and reduction of time spent on the use of ground control points (GCP) is studied. For that two projects were created with software Pix4D. First one was processed automatically without GCP. Second one did use GCP, but all the processing was done automatically.

As the result of the project, two orthomosaics with the pixel size of 5 cm were composed. Projects allowed ensuring accuracy limit of three times of the pixel size. The project that turned out to be the most accurate was the one using ground control points to do the levelling, which remained within the error limit allowed and the accuracy of the orthomosaic was 0.132 m. The project that didn't use ground control points had the accuracy of 1.417 m.

A highly accurate ionosphere model is necessary to enable a fast and reliable coordinate determination with GNSS in real time. It is a partially ionized atmospheric region ranging up to 1,000 km height, affected by spatial variations, space weather, seasonal and solar cycle dependence. New approaches and algorithms of modelling techniques are sought to provide better solutions in the territory of Latvia. Ionospheric TEC value has large differences in Western Latvia and Eastern Latvia. Actual ionospheric map should be calculated and delivered to the surveyors near real time and published on the WEB. Delivering actual map to rover GNSS devices in a field will provide the surveyors with ionospheric conditions and allow choosing best time for surveying and making geodetic measurements with higher accuracy and reliability.

Two-stage concrete (TSC) is an innovative concrete that does not require vibration for placing and compaction. TSC is a simple concept; it is made using the same basic constituents as traditional concrete: cement, coarse aggregate, sand and water as well as mineral and chemical admixtures. As its name suggests, it is produced through a two-stage process. Firstly washed coarse aggregate is placed into the formwork in-situ. Later a specifically designed self compacting grout is introduced into the form from the lowest point under gravity pressure to fill the voids, cementing the aggregate into a monolith. The hardened concrete is dense, homogeneous and has in general improved engineering properties and durability. This paper presents the results from a research work attempt to study the effect of silica fume (SF) and superplasticizers admixtures (SP) on compressive and tensile strength of TSC using various combinations of water to cement ratio (w/c) and cement to sand ratio (c/s). Thirty six concrete mixes with different grout constituents were tested. From each mix twenty four standard cylinder samples of size (150mm×300mm) of concrete containing crushed aggregate were produced. The tested samples were made from combinations of w/c equal to: 0.45, 0.55 and 0.85, and three c/s of values: 0.5, 1 and 1.5. Silica fume was added at a dosage of 6% of weight of cement, while superplasticizer was added at a dosage of 2% of cement weight. Results indicated that both tensile and compressive strength of TSC can be statistically derived as a function of w/c and c/s with good correlation coefficients. The basic principle of traditional concrete, which says that an increase in water/cement ratio will lead to a reduction in compressive strength, was shown to hold true for TSC specimens tested. Using a combination of both silica fume and superplasticisers caused a significant increase in strength relative to control mixes.

This paper describes the synthesis and characterization of a set of textile reinforced reactive powder concrete (RPC) mixes that have been prepared in the framework of the SESBE project which aims to develop facade panels for the building envelope. In order to reduce the environmental impact, high concentration of type I and II mineral additions were added to the mixtures (up to 40% of cement replacement). The mechanical properties of the materials were analysed showing high values of compression strength thus indicating no disadvantages in the compression mechanical performance (∼140 MPa) and modulus of elasticity. In order to enable the use of these materials in building applications, textile reinforcement was introduced by incorporating layers of carbon fibre grids into the RPC matrix. The flexural performance of these samples was analysed showing high strength values and suitability for their further utilization.

Operative determination of consistence of self-compacting concrete mixes at plant or in construction conditions is an important problem in building practice. The Abram's cone, the Vebe's device, the U-box siphon, L-box or funnel tests are used in solving this problem. However, these field methods are targeted at determination of some indirect parameters of such very complicated paste-like material like concrete mix. They are not physical characteristics suitable for the rheological calculations of the coherence between the stress and strains, flow characteristics and the reaction of the concrete mix in different technological processes. A conical plastometer having higher precision and less sensitive to the inaccuracy of the tests in construction condition has been elaborated at the Concrete Mechanics Laboratory of RTU. In addition, a new method was elaborated for the calculation of plasticity limit τ₀ taking into account the buoyancy force of the liquid or non-liquid concrete mix. In the present investigation rheological test of the concrete mix by use the plastometer and the method mentioned earlier was conducted for different self-compacting and not self-compacting concrete mixes.

The potential of application of CNTs as a reinforcing agent in cement composites is governed by their unique mechanical and electronic properties. The analysis of concrete strength changes under CNTs introduction shows non-uniformity and sometimes inconsistency of results. Due to the fact that CNTs influence the hydration kinetics, structure and phase composition of concrete, an idea concerning the importance of interaction between the surface of CNTs and hydrate ions formed by the dissolution of the clinker phases has been suggested. In this paper, the theoretical and experimental study of interaction between hydrate ions and CNTs surface is discussed. Reference nanotubes and nanotubes functionalized by carboxylic groups are used in this research. Phase composition was determined by X-Ray analysis according to the Rietveld method. It was found that the presence of oxygen-containing functional groups on CNTs surface leads to intensification of the hydration process and increase in concentration of C-S-H gel from 65.9% to 74.4%. Special attention is usually paid to interactions between Ca²⁺ ions and CNTs, because the hardening rate and structure of cement stone are determined by principle of Ca²⁺ localization in the solution. In this paper the possible binding mechanisms are discussed. Based on the experimental results, the hypothesis regarding the formation of cement composite structure for different CNTs surface functionalizations is considered. According to this hypothesis, the CNTs act as the centers of crystallization for hydration products contributing to the acceleration of hydration, increase of the concentration of C-S-H gel and strength improvement of CNTs based composites.

The topic of this paper is the glue-concrete interface of bonded anchors loaded by tension force. The paper is closely focused on bond strength experiments using high strength concrete up to class C50/60 or higher together with pure epoxy resin and fibre-reinforced resin. The goal of this research is to find the limits of the effective use of such glue types in high performance concrete, and also to verify the most commonly used design methods for bonded anchors. The presented research includes experimental analysis of the glue-concrete interface and the influence of its parameters on anchor behaviour. The presented analysis shows some problems of the 'separated failure modes' approach and also presents experimentally verified bond strength values obtained for the currently most widespread glue types. Results of fibre reinforced epoxy resin are also presented in this paper.

This article presents experimental investigations of composite sandwich plywood plates with cell type core and their connections between skin layers of birch plywood and a core of straight and curved plywood honeycomb-type ribs. This shape of core ribs provides several improvements for these plates in the manufacturing process as well as improves the mechanical properties of plywood plates. This specific form of ribs allows simplifying the manufacturing of these plates although it should be detailed and improved. The most typical cases (series of specimens) were compared to the results obtained from FEM (ANSYS) simulations. All thicknesses of elements are chosen according to plywood supplier assortment. Standard birch plywood (Riga Ply) plates were used - three layer plywood was chosen for skin elements (Surfaces) and three or five layer plywood was chosen for edge elements. Different bond pressures were taken to compare their influence on joint strength and stiffness.

The paper focuses on the updating of the finite element models of the newly developed façade scaffold anchor in the light of the experimental results. The experiments (force-displacement curves) have been carried out on the anchor. The façade scaffold anchor overcomes the problems arising in the process of joining them to the façades through the thermal insulation layers. Using the current methods, the wind load cannot be effectively transferred into the façade and scaffolding stability is decreased. Experimental results are presented and the finite element models of the anchor are developed using non-linear beam and solid elements. It has been observed that the predictions of finite element models that is force-displacement curve do not match with the experiment results. Subsequently, the finite element models of the developed anchor have been updated in the light of experimental results by using the parameter-based finite element model updating method. In case of an anchor, modelling of stiffness of the joints and values of the materials are expected to be dominant sources of inaccuracy in the FE model, assuming that the correct geometric parameters are known. After updating joint stiffness of the anchor joints and material properties, the finite element predictions match with experimental results. The outcomes show that there is a good correlation between the updated finite element models and the experimental data. The accuracy of the updated finite element models is demonstrated by overlaying force-displacement curves with the curve from the experiment, it can be concluded that the updated finite element models of the anchor accurately represent reality.

The paper presents an advance design model of a slender plate in the structural steel joint. Finite element methods and material models are described and design procedure for slender plates in numerical models of steel joints is proposed. The design procedure is demonstrated on examples. The results are verified with an analytical model according to European standards. A compressed beam with slender web and beam-to-column joint are studied by numerical analysis, buckling resistances are determined and results verified. The verification shows very good agreement.

This paper investigates the effect of waste plastic shreds on steel-concrete bond. Forty RILEM test specimens with 16mm and 20mm diameter high-yield reinforcing bars were cast and tested. Fifteen specimens with 16mm and 20mm each were cast with the addition of waste plastic shreds at varying percentages of 1%, 1.5% and 2%; another ten RILEM specimens with 16mm and 20mm diameter bars at 0% of waste plastic shreds were cast as reference. Nine 150mm cubes, with three taken from each batch of various percentages of waste plastic shreds, were used to monitor the concrete strength. From the test results and analysis, the compressive strength of concrete was found to reduce with increased percentages of waste plastic shreds, while the waste plastic shreds material was found not to improve the bond resistance between concrete and steel. However, though lower than normal concrete, there was an increase in the bond resistance with increase in the percent of plastic shreds. The bond resistance of 16mm was also found to be higher than that of 20mm in all the specimens tested.

Since the introduction of the direct fastening system, Embedded Rail System (ERS) is probably one of the most spectacular and innovative developments in railway engineering. The development has become more rapid, especially in the last decade due to competitive advantages in comparison toother systems with respect to higher speed, cost effectiveness, environmental-material sustainability and others. But still there is a lack of specific interaction model, especially when it comes to bridges equipped with ERS system. Previous studies on ERS by Estzer Ludvigh² found out some important coefficients (vertical and longitudinal bedding coefficient) and compared the longitudinal resistance of ERS with flexible fastening systems. Other studies on ERS do not specifically deal with the evaluation of longitudinal resistance of such a system. With a view to establish the typical behaviour pattern of ERS, this paper is dedicated to find out the interaction of a specific Embedded Rail System with bridges. A small scale test was conducted on a sample of ERS in the laboratory under different combinations of vertical and longitudinal track loads and subsequently a Finite Element Model (FEM) was developed to simulate the test. The paper presents the FEA result validation with test results, the interaction pattern, longitudinal resistance of ERS track for both loaded and unloaded conditions, design load distribution for such systems and some specific influences of ERS on simply supported bridge systems.

High Strength Steels became more popular as a construction material during last decade because of their increased availability and affordability. On the other hand, even though general use of Advanced High Strength Steels (AHSS) is expanding, the wide utilization is limited because of insufficient information about their behaviour in structures. The most widely used technique for joining steels is fusion welding. The welding process has an influence not only on the welded connection but on the area near this connection, the so-called heat affected zone, as well. For that reason it is very important to be able to determine the properties in the heat affected zone (HAZ). This area of investigation is being continuously developed in dependence on significant progress in material production, especially regarding new types of steels available. There are currently several types of AHSS on the world market. Two most widely used processes for AHSS production are Thermo-Mechanically Controlled Processing (TMCP) and Quenching in connection with Tempering. In the presented study, TMCP and QC steels grade S960 were investigated. The study is focused on the changes of strength, ductility, hardness and impact strength in heat affected zone based on the used amount of heat input.

Cross-laminated timber is an environmentally friendly material, which possesses a decreased level of anisotropy in comparison with the solid and glued timber. Cross-laminated timber could be used for load-bearing walls and slabs of multi-storey timber buildings as well as decking structures of pedestrian and road bridges. Design methods of cross-laminated timber elements subjected to bending and compression with bending were considered. The presented methods were experimentally validated and verified by FEM. Two cross-laminated timber slabs were tested at the action of static load. Pine wood was chosen as a board's material. Freely supported beam with the span equal to 1.9 m, which was loaded by the uniformly distributed load, was a design scheme of the considered plates. The width of the plates was equal to 1 m. The considered cross-laminated timber plates were analysed by FEM method. The comparison of stresses acting in the edge fibres of the plate and the maximum vertical displacements shows that both considered methods can be used for engineering calculations. The difference between the results obtained experimentally and analytically is within the limits from 2 to 31%. The difference in results obtained by effective strength and stiffness and transformed sections methods was not significant.

Behaviour of the slender steel arch supporting textile membranes in a membrane structure with respect to in-plane and out-of plane stability is investigated in the paper. In the last decades the textile membranes have been widely used to cover both common and exclusive structures due to progress in new membrane materials with eminent properties. Nevertheless, complex analysis of such membranes in interaction with steel structure (carbon/stainless steel perimeter or supporting elements) is rather demanding, even with specialized software. Laboratory model of a large membrane structure simulating a shelter roof of a concert stage was tested and the resulting stress/deflection values are presented. The model of a reasonable size was provided with prestressed membrane of PVC coated polyester fabric Ferrari® Précontraint 702S and tested under various loadings. The supporting steel structure consisted of two steel arch tubes from S355 grade steel and perimeter prestressed cables. The stability behaviour of the inner tube was the primary interest of the investigation. The SOFiSTiK software was used to analyse the structural behaviour in 3D. Numerical non-linear analysis of deflections and internal forces of the structure under symmetrical and asymmetrical loadings covers various membrane prestressing and specific boundary conditions. The numerical results are validated using test results. Finally, the preliminary recommendations for appropriate numerical modelling and stability design of the supporting structure are presented.

Cross laminated timber (CLT) is one of the structural building systems based on the lamination of multiple layers, where each layer is oriented perpendicularly to each other. Recent requirements are placed to develop an alternative process based on the mechanical lamination of the layers, which is of particular interest to our research group at the University Centre for Energy Efficient Buildings. The goal is to develop and verify the behaviour of mechanically laminated CLT wall panels exposed to shear stresses in the plane. The shear resistance of mechanically jointed CLT is ensured by connecting the layers by screws. The paper deals with the experimental analysis focused on the determination of the torsional stiffness and the slip modulus of crossing areas for different numbers of orthogonally connected layers. The results of the experiments were compared with the current analytical model.

Construction regulations are still different in many European countries, even though the European Union directives have unified many acts for construction works and construction products in the member countries. The scheme of the construction process presented in the paper could be valid for most countries, despite of detailed regulations of legal systems. The number of construction regulations to be followed in order to get the Construction Permit in Poland is rather big, so the time between the start of the investment process and the day when the Construction Permit is issued could be several months. Only licensed professional engineers can play the role of site managers, site inspectors and designers, registered for the given construction project. Duties and responsibilities (civil liability) of these engineers are strictly defined by regulations. The obligatory inspection of construction works should be executed by the licensed site inspectors. Moreover, the works can be incidentally inspected by Authority, banks, insurance companies or designers. Foreign designers and foreign site engineers in order to be allowed by respective Authority to play official roles on Polish construction sites should present documents proving that they can do the same jobs in their countries as per regulations obligatory there.

In this paper the applicability of spatial continuous wavelet transform (CWT) technique for damage identification in the beam structure is analyzed by application of different types of wavelet functions and scaling factors. The proposed method uses exclusively mode shape data from the damaged structure. To examine limitations of the method and to ascertain its sensitivity to noisy experimental data, several sets of simulated data are analyzed. Simulated test cases include numerical mode shapes corrupted by different levels of random noise as well as mode shapes with different number of measurement points used for wavelet transform. A broad comparison of ability of different wavelet functions to detect and locate damage in beam structure is given. Effectiveness and robustness of the proposed algorithms are demonstrated experimentally on two aluminum beams containing single mill-cut damage. The modal frequencies and the corresponding mode shapes are obtained via finite element models for numerical simulations and by using a scanning laser vibrometer with PZT actuator as vibration excitation source for the experimental study.

In the time when sustainable construction as well as cost saving on heating and cooling of buildings is one of the most important construction trends, it is important to acknowledge the possibilities of application of construction materials with high heat insulation parameters and the ways in which these parameters can be obtained. Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) is a load bearing construction material, which has high heat insulation parameters, although it has one significant disadvantage. If the AAC masonry construction has high moisture content, it loses its heat insulation properties. This is the reason why it is important to detect the humidity distribution throughout the cross section of the masonry elements in order to conduct the drying process of the AAC construction. Therefore, the question about non-destructive detection of humidity distribution throughout the cross section of the material arises. Humidity distribution throughout the cross section of AAC masonry constructions has a significant impact on its heat resistivity properties. Application of electrical impedance spectrometry (EIS) method for determination of humidity distribution throughout the cross section of AAC constructions has been a subject of research recently. The EIS method is an easily applicable non-destructive testing method for detection of the humidity distribution throughout the cross section of a construction. Research on the impact of the external heat insulation layer on the speed of humidity distribution changes is described in this paper.

It is the area of research of oscillatory processes in elastic mechanical systems. Technical result of innovation is creation of spectral set of multidimensional images which reflect time-correlated three-dimensional vector parameters of metrological, and\or estimated, and\or design parameters of oscillations in mechanical systems. Reconstructed images of different dimensionality integrated in various combinations depending on their objective function can be used as homeostatic profile or cybernetic image of oscillatory processes in mechanical systems for an objective estimation of current operational conditions in real time. The innovation can be widely used to enhance the efficiency of monitoring and research of oscillation processes in mechanical systems (objects) in construction, mechanical engineering, acoustics, etc. Concept method of vector vibrometry based on application of vector 3D phase- sensitive vibro-transducers permits unique evaluation of real stressed-strained states of power aggregates and loaded constructions and opens fundamental innovation opportunities: conduct of continuous (on-line regime) reliable monitoring of turboagregates of electrical machines, compressor installations, bases, supports, pipe-lines and other objects subjected to damaging effect of vibrations; control of operational safety of technical systems at all the stages of life cycle including design, test production, tuning, testing, operational use, repairs and resource enlargement; creation of vibro-diagnostic systems of authentic non-destructive control of anisotropic characteristics of materials resistance of power aggregates and loaded constructions under outer effects and operational flaws. The described technology is revolutionary, universal and common for all branches of engineering industry and construction building objects.

This paper examines the success indicators of construction projects, safety, quality and productivity, in terms of their implications and impacts during and after construction. First safety is considered during construction with a focus on hazard identification and the prevention of occupational accidents and injuries on worksites. The legislation mandating safety programs, training and compliance with safety standards is presented and discussed. Consideration of safety at the design stage is emphasized. Building safety and the roles of building codes in prevention of structural failures are also covered in the paper together with factors affecting building failures and methods for their prevention. Quality is introduced in the paper from the perspective of modern total quality management. Concepts of quality management, quality control, quality assurance and Six Sigma and how they relate to building quality and structural integrity are discussed with examples. Finally, productivity concepts are presented with emphasis on effective project management to minimize loss of productivity, complimented by lean construction and lean Six Sigma principles. The paper concludes by synthesizing the relationships between safety, quality and productivity.

The paper presents experimental and numerical research of strengthening of columns under load using welded plates. Three sets of three columns each were tested. All columns were 3 m long. The load from loading cylinders was transmitted through knife-edge bearings, which ensured pinned boundary condition perpendicular to the weaker axis. Set (A) comprised columns with welded T shaped cross-section. Set (B) comprised columns with welded monosymmetric I shaped cross-section. Both sets (A) and (B) had been loaded monotonically until collapse occurred. Set (C) contained columns with T shaped cross-section with the same dimensions as the columns in set (A). The columns from set (C) were first loaded to 70 kN. The force was being held constant and the second flange was being welded to the web under load. After the welding process was finished and the specimen cooled, the column was loaded to failure. The average forces at collapse of column sets (A), (B) and (C) were 143 kN, 308 kN and 323 kN, respectively. It was unexpected that the columns strengthened under load (C) had higher average resistance than the columns welded without preload (B). It could be caused by the residual stress and distortion caused by welding. The study includes the results of finite element models of the problem created in ANSYS software. The results from the experiments and numerical simulations were compared.

Constantly increasing intensity of road traffic and the allowed speed limits seem to impose stronger requirements on road infrastructure and use of road safety systems. One of the ways to improve road safety is the use of road restraint systems. Road safety barriers allow not only reducing the number of road traffic accidents, but also lowering the severity of accidents. The paper provides information on the technical requirements of road safety barriers. Various types of road safety barriers and their selection criteria for different types of road sections are discussed.

The article views an example of a road traffic accident, which is also modelled by PC-Crash computer program. The given example reflects a road accident mechanism in case of a car-to-barrier collision, and provides information about the typical damage to the car and the barrier. The paper describes an impact of the road safety barrier type and its presence on the road traffic accident mechanism. Implementation and maintenance costs of different barrier types are viewed. The article presents a discussion on the necessity to use road safety barriers, as well as their optimal choice.

Average annual daily traffic and average annual truck traffic are two most used metrics for road management decisions. They are calculated from data gathered by continuous counting stations embedded in road pavement, manual counting sessions or mobile counting devices. Last two usually do not last longer than a couple of weeks so the information gathered is influenced by yearly traffic fluctuations.

Data containing a total of 8,186,871 vehicles or 1989 days from 4 WIM stations installed on highways in Latvia were used in this study. Each of the files was supposed to contain data from only 1 day and additional data were deleted. No other data cleaning steps were performed, which increased the number of vehicles as counting systems sometimes split vehicles into two. Weekly traffic and weekly truck traffic was normalized against respective average values. Each weekly value was then plotted against its number in a year for better visual perception. Weekly traffic amplitudes were used to assess differences between different locations and standard deviations for fluctuation comparison of truck and regular traffic at the same location.

Results show that truck traffic fluctuates more than regular traffic during a year, especially around holidays. Differences between counting locations were larger for regular traffic than truck traffic. These results show that average annual daily traffic could be influenced more if short term counting results are adjusted by factors derived from unsuitable continuous counting stations, but truck traffic is more influenced by the time of year in which counting is done.

Amongst the scientific community, the interest in durability of concrete structures has been high for quite a long time of over 40 years. Of the various causes of degradation of concrete structures, corrosion is the most widespread durability problem and carbonation is one of the two causes of steel reinforcement corrosion. While much scientific understanding has been gained from the numerous carbonation studies undertaken over the past years, it is still presently not possible to accurately predict carbonation and apply it in design of structures. This underscores the complex nature of the mechanisms as influenced by several interactive factors. Based on critical literature and some experience of the author, it is found that there still exist major challenges in establishing a mathematical constitutive relation for realistic carbonation prediction. While most current models employ permeability /diffusion as the main model property, analysis shows that the most practical material property would be compressive strength, which has a low coefficient of variation of 20% compared to 30 to 50% for permeability. This important characteristic of compressive strength, combined with its merit of simplicity and data availability at all stages of a structure's life, promote its potential use in modelling over permeability. By using compressive strength in carbonation prediction, the need for accelerated testing and permeability measurement can be avoided.

This paper attempts to examine the issues associated with carbonation prediction, which could underlie the current lack of a sound established prediction method. Suggestions are then made for possible employment of different or alternative approaches.

Glass plays an exceptional role in the modern architecture due to the optical properties and transparency. Structural elements from glass like beams, facades and roofs are relatively frequent in common practice [1]. Although glass has significantly higher compressive strength in comparison with tensile strength, load bearing glass elements are relatively rare. This opens up new opportunities for application of glass in such structures as transparent columns loaded by the axial force. This paper summarizes the experimental results of the tests on glass columns loaded by centric pressure, which were performed in the laboratories of the CTU in Prague, Faculty of Civil Engineering. The first set of experiments was composed of three specimens in a reduced scale 1:2 to verify real behaviour of the specimens with enclosed hollow cross-section. The main goal of the experiment was to determine force at the first breakage and consequently the maximal force at the collapse of this element.

The derivation of the equation for the calculation of the critical size of clusters and nanoparticles in the range of appearing of their unusual properties in comparison with the massive body as well as the equation for the calculation of the growth of spherical crystallites and aggregations is presented in the article.

The profession of a structural engineer is highly responsible, because the consequences of a structural engineer's errors result not only in economic damage to the property and often irreversible damage to the environment, they can also lead to direct loss of lives. In the current turbulent, dynamically developing society the managerial methods of structural engineers should not stagnate at the level of the last century applications.

This paper deals with the challenges which the ongoing century poses to structural engineers and managers. It compares the results of research regarding the current state of managerial skills of structural engineers in Czech building companies to the defined skills of the 21st century's managers according to the global research programme ITL Research and according to the Vision for the Future of Structural Engineering, drawn up by Structural Engineering Institute - SEI ASCE.

Unique aesthetical properties of glass - not only transparency but also smooth, glossy and primarily reflective surface - give this material special importance in the contemporary architecture. In every structural application of glass it is necessary to solve the problem associated with connections between glass pane and other part from a different material or between two glass elements. Moreover, there are many types of hybrid structures that combine glass and different materials to achieve safe failure behaviour and high degree of transparency at the same time. Connection of brittle glass and reinforcing material is an essential part of these structures, where composite action between two parts is beneficially ensured by a glued joint. The current paper deals with the experimental analysis focused on the determination of mechanical characteristics of adhesives applied in planar connections under shear loading.

The design of spatial connections in load bearing timber structures with steel angle brackets has insufficient support in the existing design standards. Therefore, research has been necessary to improve this state of the art. In the current paper an experimental study on two designs of angle brackets is presented and the results from full-scale experiments are compared to numerical and analytical computational models.

This article presents the results of numerical simulation of dynamic behaviour of welded metal beams in conveyor galleries. Investigations were carried out for the beams having symmetrical cross-sections and evenly-spaced transversal ribs with various spacing between the ribs in different beams. The regularities of changes in the vibration mode shapes depending on the beam geometric characteristics have been investigated.

Conventional methods of monitoring technical condition are based on detection of damage in the structures of buildings or facilities during the entire period of their operation. In spite of considerable interest displayed to this issue and a significant number of publications, there is no unity of opinions. These methods differ from each other in the sets of values fixed for investigations, the techniques of their recording, transfer and further processing. Today's rules and regulations for structural designs expand the scope of application of the structures operating in the elastic-plastic stage. These damage-free structures originally display the nonlinear properties and can be adequately described only by the non-linear models. This paper presents a method for determining the type and level of non-linearity from the structural oscillations data for monitoring the change in the health of structures. It is shown that a plot of acceleration against the magnitude of the displacement represents the restoring force of a structure. If the structure is damaged during a new striking motion, the phase trajectories in plane "acceleration-displacement" will deviate from its healthy signature.

This paper presents the development of an innovative cement-electrolyte battery for low power operations such as cathodic protection of reinforced concrete. A battery design was refined by altering different constituents and examining the open circuit voltage, resistor loaded current and lifespan. The final design consisted of a copper plate cathode, aluminium plate anode, and a cement electrolyte which included additives of carbon black, plasticiser, Alum salt and Epsom salt. A relationship between age, temperature and hydration of the cell and the current it produced was determined. It was found that sealing the battery using varnish increased the moisture retention and current output. Current was also found to increase with internal temperature of the electrolyte and connecting two cells in parallel further doubled or even tripled the current. Parallel-connected cells could sustain an average current of 0.35mA through a 10Ω resistor over two weeks of recording. The preliminary findings demonstrate that cement-based batteries can produce sufficient sustainable electrical outputs with the correct materials and arrangement of components. Work is ongoing to determine how these batteries can be recharged using photovoltaics which will further enhance their sustainability properties.

The aim of this research is to investigate the chemical composition of stone materials of several local historic buildings with a purpose of elaboration of restoration strategy, including the choice of restoration materials. Most of the examined mortars are lime- based hydraulic mortars, characteristic of the architecture of 19^th/20^th century. Pure aerial lime binders show reduced compatibility with historic materials, that is why lime binders with pozzolan additive (cement) are an appropriate choice for restoration. In order to examine the changes of hydraulicity (i.e. the property of binders to harden when exposed to water) of perspective restoration binders, a series of blended lime-cement mixtures were synthesized with growing content of cement (up to 10% by weight). A significant relationship between cement content and hydraulic properties has been shown.

The objective of this study was to explore some physical and mechanical properties and the dimensional stability of birch (Betula sp.) nine-ply veneers glued with phenol-formaldehyde (PF) after 10 cycles of soaking/oven-drying. The properties to be determined were bending strength (BS), modulus of elasticity in bending (MOE), Janka hardness (JH) and thickness swelling (TS), which were tested according to the European Standards (EN). An analytical equation was used for approximation of the change in the physical and mechanical properties of the samples depending on the number of cycles. It was shown that the values of the studied properties were affected most by the first soaking and drying cycles after which BS and MOE decreased continuously while the values of JH and TS stabilized. After 10 cycles the final values of BS, MOE, JH and TS accounted for 75-81%, 95%, 82% and 98.5% of the initial values, respectively.

Sustainable energy use has become topical in the whole world. Energy gives us comfort we are used to. EU and national regulations determine energy efficiency of the buildings. This is one side of the problem - energy efficiency of houses during exploitation. But the other side is primary energy content of used materials and more rational use of resources during the whole life cycle of a building. The latter value constitutes about 8 - 20% from the whole energy content. Calculations of energy efficiency of materials lead us to energy efficiency of insulation materials and to comparison of natural and industrial materials taking into account their thermal conductivity as well as their primary energy content.

Case study of the test house (built in 2012) insulated with straw bales gave the result that thermal transmittance of investigated straw bale walls was according to the minimum energy efficiency requirements set in Estonia U = 0.12 - 0.22 W/m²K (for walls).

Visual appearance of building facades and other load bearing structures, which now are part of modern architecture, is the reason why it is important to investigate in more detail the reliability of laminated glass for civil structures. Laminated glass in particular has become one of the trendy materials, for example Apple© stores have both load carrying capacity and transparent appearance. Glass has high mechanical strength and relatively medium density, however, the risk of sudden brittle failure like concrete or other ceramics determine relatively high conservatism in design practice of glass structures. This should be changed as consumer requirements evolve calling for a safe and reliable design methodology and corresponding building standards. A design methodology for glass and glass laminates should be urgently developed and included as a chapter in Eurocode. This paper presents initial experimental investigation of behaviour of simple glass sheets and laminated glass samples in 4-point bending test. The aim of the current research is to investigate laminated glass characteristic values and to verify the obtained experimental results with finite element method for glass and EVA material in line with future European Structural Design of Glass Components code.

This paper discusses the effects of heating temperatures of 200°C, 400°C and 600°C each for 2 hours at a heating rate of 2.5°C/min on concrete with the content of Natural Coarse Aggregates (NCA) partially replaced with Recycled Coarse Aggregates (RCA), obtained from demolished building in the ratio of 0%, 15% and 30%.There was an initial drop in strength from 100°C to 200°C which is suspected to be due to the relatively weak interfacial bond between the RCA and the hardened paste within the concrete matrix;a gradual increase in strength continued from 200°C to 450°C and steady drop occurred again as it approached 600°C.With replacement proportion of 0%, 15% and 30% of NCA and exposure to peak temperature of 600°C, a relative concrete strength of 23.6MPa, 25.3MPa and 22.2MPa respectively can be achieved for 28 days curing age. Furthermore, RAC with 15% NCA replacement when exposed to optimum temperature of 450°C yielded high compressive strength comparable to that of control specimen (normal concrete). In addition, for all concrete samples only slight surface hairline cracks were noticed as the temperature approached 400°C. Thus, the RAC demonstrated behavior just like normal concrete and may be considered fit for structural use.

The high cost of conventional concrete materials is a major factor affecting housing delivery in developing countries such as Nigeria. Since Nigeria is blessed with abundant locally available materials like laterite, researchers have conducted comprehensive studies on the use of laterite to replace river sand partially or fully in the concrete. However, the works did not consider the optimum use of coarse aggregate to possibly improve the strength of the laterized concrete, since it is normally lower than that of normal concrete. The results of the tests showed that workability, density and compressive strength at constant water-cement ratio increase with the increase in the coarse aggregate particle size and also with curing age. As the percentage of laterite increases, there was a reduction in all these characteristics even with the particle size of coarse aggregate reduction due to loss from the aggregate-paste interface zone. Also, when sand was replaced by 25% of laterite, the 19.5mm and 12.5mm coarse aggregate particle sizes gave satisfactory results in terms of workability and compressive strength respectively at 28 days of curing age, compared to normal concrete. However, in case of 50% up to 100% laterite contents, the workability and compressive strength values were very low.

Since the year 1908 there has been research into the use alkali activated materials (AAM) in order to develop cementitious materials with similar properties to Ordinary Portland Cement. AAMs are considered green materials since their production and synthesis is not energy intensive. Even though AAMs have a high compressive strength, the average cost of production among other issues limits its feasibility. Previous research by the authors yielded a low cost AAM that uses mine tailings, wollastonite and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS). This mortar has an average compressive strength of 50MPa after 28 days of curing. In this paper the software SimaPro was used to create a product base cradle to gate Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). This compared the environmental impact of the AAM mortar to an Ordinary Portland Cement mortar (PCHM) with similar compressive strength. The main motivation for this research is the environmental impact of producing Ordinary Portland Cement as compared to alkali activated slag materials. The results of this LCA show that the Alkali Activated Material has a lower environmental impact than traditional Portland cement hydraulic mortar, in 10 out of 12 categories including Global Warming Potential, Ecotoxicity, and Smog. Areas of improvement and possible future work were also discovered with this analysis.

Quality control is one of the important aspects of any major construction works, which is to be undertaken to ensure work execution according to design requirements. The work presented in this paper involved measurement of cover thickness in three newly constructed highway bridges. Testing was conducted to ensure that specified requirements were attained prior to commissioning of the structures; otherwise, the quality control survey would identify problem areas for consideration of corrective measures.

A total of 328 data sets were obtained during cover measurements. In this paper, the results obtained are discussed and evaluated. Data are characterised on the basis of statistical quantities.

The concept of sustainability should be the main guiding principle in the construction industry today. It mandates conservation of natural resources and thus lower impact on the environment. In road construction, part of construction industry that consumes largest quantities of natural materials, sustainable building and maintenance of roads is possible trough application of secondary materials. Usage of industrial and construction waste presents energy, ecologically and financially effective alternative. Republic of Croatia, even as a new member of the European Union, still lags behind the well-established practices of the application of alternative materials in different European countries. The reasons for this can be found in the current legal and technical regulations for alternative materials. In this paper, the existing regulations for alternative materials and the impact they have on the application of these materials in practice in the region of eastern Croatia will be shown.

A large part of Latvian road network consists of low traffic volume roads and in particular of roads without hard pavement. Unbounded pavements shows serious problems in the form of rutting and other deformations, which finally lead to weak serviceability and damage of the road structure after intensive exploitation periods. Traditionally, these problems have been associated with heavy goods transport, overloaded vehicles and their impact. To find the specific damaging factors causing road pavement deformations and evaluate their prevention possibilities, and establish conditions that will allow doing it, the study was carried out. The tire pressure has been set as the main factor of load. Two different tire pressures have been used in tests and their impacts were compared. The comparison was done using deflection measurements with LWD together with dielectric constant measurements in a road structure using percometer. Measurements were taken in the upper pavement structure layers at different depths during full-scale loading and in different moisture/temperature conditions. Advisable load intensity and load factors for heavy traffic according to road conditions were set based on the study results.

Dolomite is one of the most widely available sedimentary rocks in the territory of Latvia. Dolomite quarries contain about 1,000 million tons of this material. However, according to Latvian Road Specifications, this dolomite cannot be used for average and high intensity roads because of its low quality, mainly, its LA index (The Los Angeles abrasion test). Therefore, mostly the imported magmatic rocks (granite, diabase, gabbro, basalt) or imported dolomite are used, which makes asphalt expensive. However, practical experience shows that even with these high quality materials roads exhibit rutting, fatigue, and thermal cracks. The aim of the research is to develop a high performance asphalt concrete for base and binder courses using only locally available aggregates. In order to achieve resistance against deformations at a high ambient temperature, a hard grade binder was used. Workability, fatigue and thermal cracking resistance, as well as sufficient water resistance is achieved by low porosity (3-5%) and higher binder content compared to traditional asphalt mixtures. The design of the asphalt includes a combination of empirical and performance based tests, which in laboratory circumstances allow simulating traffic and environmental loads. High performance AC 16 base asphalt concrete was created using local dolomite aggregate with polymer modified (PMB 10/40-65) and hard grade (B20/30) bitumen. The mixtures were specified based on fundamental properties in accordance with EN 13108-1 standard.