Table of contents

This review will examine the integration of two fields that are currently at the forefront of science, i.e. biosensors and microfluidics. As a lab-on-a-chip (LOC) technology, microfluidics has been enriched by the integration of various detection tools for analyte detection and quantitation. The application of such microfluidic platforms is greatly increased in the area of biosensors geared towards point-of-care diagnostics. Together, the merger of microfluidics and biosensors has generated miniaturized devices for sample processing and sensitive detection with quantitation. We believe that microfluidic biosensors (biosensors-on-chip) are essential for developing robust and cost effective point-of-care diagnostics. This review is relevant to a variety of disciplines, such as medical science, clinical diagnostics, LOC technologies including MEMs/NEMs, and analytical science. Specifically, this review will appeal to scientists working in the two overlapping fields of biosensors and microfluidics, and will also help new scientists to find their directions in developing point-of-care devices.

There is continuing interest in radio frequency (RF) microelectromechanical system (MEMS) devices due to their ability to offer exceptional RF performance, high linearity and low power consumption. To date, there is an impressive amount of RF MEMS components such as; switches, resonators, varactors, and tunable inductors that have enabled smaller, cheaper and more efficient RF systems. RF MEMS devices contain micromachined components that have the ability to move so that a change in the mechanical state of a device will result in a change to the device's RF properties. There are many common modes of actuation, including, but not limited to: electrostatic, magnetostatic, piezoelectric, and electrothermal actuation. Although there are attractive aspects and drawbacks to each of these technologies, this paper will focus on advances in the application of piezoelectric actuation, and in particular the use of lead zirconium titanate (PZT), for RF MEMS.

Inertial focusing is a promising microfluidic technology for concentration and separation of particles by size. However, there is a strong correlation of increased pressure with decreased particle size. Theory and experimental results for larger particles were used to scale down the phenomenon and find the conditions that focus 1 µm particles. High pressure experiments in robust glass chips were used to demonstrate the alignment. We show how the technique works for 1 µm spherical polystyrene particles and for Escherichia coli, not being harmful for the bacteria at 50 µl min⁻¹. The potential to focus bacteria, simplicity of use and high throughput make this technology interesting for healthcare applications, where concentration and purification of a sample may be required as an initial step.

We have fabricated a silicon-glass two-phase droplet microfluidic system capable of generating sub 100 µm-sized, ⌀  =  (74  ±  2) µm, spherical droplets at rates of up to hundreds of hertz. By implementing a two-dimensional (2D) acoustophoresis particle-positioning method, we show a fourfold improvement in both vertical and lateral particle positioning inside the droplets compared to unactuated operation. The efficiency of the system has been optimized by incorporating aluminum matching layers in the transducer design permitting biocompatible operational temperatures (<37 °C). Furthermore, by using acoustic actuation, (99.8  ±  0.4)% of all encapsulated microparticles can be detected compared to only (79.0  ±  5.1)% for unactuated operation. In our experiments we observed a strong ordering of the microparticles in distinct patterns within the droplet when using 2D acoustophoresis; to explain the origin of these patterns we simulated numerically the fluid flow inside the droplets and compared with the experimental findings.

We systematically study the effect of two packaging configurations for the CMOS thermoresistive micro calorimetric flow (TMCF) sensors: S-type with the sensor chip protrusion-mounted on the flow channel wall and E-type with the sensor chip flush-mounted on the flow channel wall. Although the experimental results indicated that the sensitivity of the S-type was increased by more than 30%; the corresponding flow range as compared to the E-type was dramatically reduced by 60% from 0–11 m s⁻¹ to 0–4.5 m s⁻¹. Comprehensive 2D CFD simulation and in-house developed 3D numerical simulations based on the gas-kinetic scheme were applied to study the flow separation of these two packaging designs with the major parameters. Indeed, the S-type design with the large protrusion would change the local convective heat transfer of the TMCF sensor and dramatically decrease the sensors' performance. In addition, parametric CFD simulations of the packaging designs provide inspiration to propose a novel general flow regime map (FRM), i.e. normalized protrusion d^* versus reduced chip Reynolds number Re^*, where the critical boundary curve for the flow separation of TMCF sensors was determined at different channel aspect ratios. The proposed FRM can be a useful guideline for the packaging design and manufacturing of different micro thermal flow sensors.

Microwave performance is a basic index of the sensors used at microwave frequencies, but also affects the sensing output. For the purpose of low-loss microwave applications, it is important for different microwave sensors to develop microwave design. This paper presents the microwave design and analysis of a micromachined self-heating microwave power sensor in the GaAs MMIC process, where the microwave power is dissipated and converted into output thermovoltages by two matching thermocouples. A dc-blocking capacitor is connected to the thermocouples in series and used to avoid the output short-circuit. In order to characterize the microwave performance, an S-parameter model of this self-heating power sensor is established. Using the model, the effects of the capacitor and the thermocouples on the reflection loss are investigated under different microwave frequencies. To demonstrate the validity of the microwave model, the microwave performance of the self-heating sensor is simulated using an electromagnetic software. In the simulation, the relationship between the substrate membrane underneath the thermocouples and the reflection loss is analyzed. Measured reflection losses of the self-heating sensor are between  −15.5 to  −15.9 dB at 8–12 GHz. The measured results show good agreement with the microwave model and simulation, and the source of small deviations is discussed. The proposed microwave design and analysis contributes to achieving low reflection loss for the sensor, with the fact that more power is used to convert into the thermovoltages.

Wet bulk micromachining is a popular technique for the fabrication of microstructures in research labs as well as in industry. However, increasing the throughput still remains an active area of research, and can be done by increasing the etching rate. Moreover, the release time of a freestanding structure can be reduced if the undercutting rate at convex corners can be improved. In this paper, we investigate a non-conventional etchant in the form of NH₂OH added in 5 wt% tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH) to determine its etching characteristics. Our analysis is focused on a Si{1 0 0} wafer as this is the most widely used in the fabrication of planer devices (e.g. complementary metal oxide semiconductors) and microelectromechanical systems (e.g. inertial sensors). We perform a systematic and parametric analysis with concentrations of NH₂OH varying from 5% to 20% in step of 5%, all in 5 wt% TMAH, to obtain the optimum concentration for achieving improved etching characteristics including higher etch rate, undercutting at convex corners, and smooth etched surface morphology. Average surface roughness (R_a), etch depth, and undercutting length are measured using a 3D scanning laser microscope. Surface morphology of the etched Si{1 0 0} surface is examined using a scanning electron microscope. Our investigation has revealed a two-fold increment in the etch rate of a {1 0 0} surface with the addition of NH₂OH in the TMAH solution. Additionally, the incorporation of NH₂OH significantly improves the etched surface morphology and the undercutting at convex corners, which is highly desirable for the quick release of microstructures from the substrate. The results presented in this paper are extremely useful for engineering applications and will open a new direction of research for scientists in both academic and industrial laboratories.

Scatterometry is used as an in-line metrology solution for injection molded nanostructures to evaluate the pattern replication fidelity. The method is used to give direct feedback to an operator when testing new molding parameters and for continuous quality control. A compact scatterometer has been built and tested at a fabrication facility. The scatterometry measurements, including data analysis and handling of the samples, are much faster than the injection molding cycle time, and thus, characterization does not slow down the production rate. Fabrication and characterization of 160 plastic parts with line gratings are presented here, and the optimal molding temperatures for replication of nanostructures are found for two polymers. Scatterometry results are compared to state of the art metrology solutions: atomic force and scanning electron microscopy. It is demonstrated that the scatterometer can determine the structural parameters of the samples with an accuracy of a few nanometers in less than a second, thereby enabling in-line characterization.

This paper presents a large displacement out-of-plane Lorentz actuator array for surface manipulation. Actuators are formed from single crystal silicon flexible serpentine springs on either side of a rigid crossbar containing a narrow contact pillar. A rigid mounting rail system was employed to enable a 5  ×  5 array, which offers scalability of the array size. Analytical and finite element models were used to optimize actuator design. Individual actuators were tested to show linear deflection response of  ±150 µm motion, using a  ±14.7 mA current in the presence of a 0.48 T magnetic field. This actuator array is suitable for various 2D surface modification applications due to its large deformation with low current and temperature of operation, and narrow contact area to a target surface.

In this work, liquid microlens arrays are fabricated by the template assisted liquid self-assembly method and the corresponding focus adjustment is realized by the photothermal conversion of graphene microsheets. Under the infrared laser irradiation, the deposited graphene microsheets layer can convert the light energy into thermal energy, which can increase the temperature of liquid microlens and induce the change of the lenslet curvature. As a result, the liquid microlens array can realize a reversible and programmable focus by selectively confining infrared laser to an expectant region. In contrast with traditional microlens arrays, graphene-based liquid microlens arrays are versatile and practicable with the advantages of non-contact actuation, remote and local control, and omitted connecting wires and electrodes. All these excellent advantages make the graphene-based microlens arrays available for remote-driven optoelectronic applications.

This paper presents a new detection method of cyclic-fold bifurcations in electrostatic MEMS transducers based on a variant of the harmonic detection of resonance method. The electrostatic transducer is driven by an unbiased harmonic signal at half its natural frequency, ω_a  =  1/2 ω_o. The response of the transducer consists of static displacement and a series of harmonics at 2 ω_a, 4 ω_a, and so on. Its motion-induced current is shifted by the excitation frequency, ω_a, to appear at 3 ω_a, 5 ω_a, and higher odd harmonics, providing higher sensitivity to the measurement of harmonic motions. With this method, we successfully detected the variation in the location of the cyclic-fold bifurcation of an encapsulated electrostatic MEMS transducer. We also detected a regime of tapping mode motions subsequent to the bifurcation.

The accurate measurement of mechanical properties of thin films is required for the design of reliable nano/micro-electromechanical devices but is increasingly challenging for thicknesses approaching a few nanometers. We apply a combination of resonant and static mechanical test structures to measure elastic constants and residual stresses of 8–27 nm thick Al₂O₃ and Pt layers which have been fabricated through atomic layer deposition. Young's modulus of poly-crystalline Pt films was found to be reduced by less than 15% compared to the bulk value, whereas for amorphous Al₂O₃ it was reduced to about half of its bulk value. We observed no discernible dependence of the elastic constant on thickness or deposition method for Pt, but the use of plasma-enhanced atomic layer deposition was found to increase Young's modulus of Al₂O₃ by 10% compared to a thermal atomic layer deposition. As deposited, the Al₂O₃ layers had an average tensile residual stress of 131 MPa. The stress was found to be higher for thinner layers and layers deposited without the help of a remote plasma. No residual stress values could be extracted for Pt due to insufficient adhesion of the film without an underlying layer to promote nucleation.

Impedance measurement is a widely used technique for monitoring ion species in various applications. In plant cultivation, the impedance system is used to measure the electrical conductivity (EC) of nutrient solutions. Recent research has shown that the quality and quantity of horticultural crops, e.g. tomato, can be optimized by controlling the salinity of nutrient solutions. However, understanding the detailed response of a plant to a nutrient solution is not possible until the fruit is fully grown or by sacrificing the stem. To overcome this issue, horticultural crop cultivation requires real-time monitoring of the EC inside the stem. Using this data, the growth model of a plant could be constructed, and the response of the plant to external environment determined. In this paper, we propose an implantable microneedle device equipped with a micro-patterned impedance measurement system for direct measurement of the EC inside the tomato stem. The fabrication process includes silicon-based steps such as microscale deposition, photolithography, and a deep etching process. Further, microscale fabrication enables all functional elements to fulfill the area budget and be very accurate with minimal plant invasion. A two-electrode geometry is used to match the measurement condition of the tomato stem. Real-time measurement of local sap condition inside the plant in which real-time data for tomato sap EC is obtained after calibration at various concentrations of standard solution demonstrate the efficacy of the proposed device.

Compared to conventional thermal imprinting using a flat mold, roll-to-roll (R2R) thermal imprinting using a roller mold is a high-speed, high through-put process. In an R2R thermal imprinting process, however, the contact duration between a mold and a thermoplastic substrate is extremely short. This results in insufficient heating and pressing, leading to low fidelity of the imprinted microstructures. We have developed an R2R thermal imprinting system, which allows us to extend the contact duration between the mold and substrate. This system consists of two continuous, seamless belts that are made of metal foil. Each belt is driven by an individual hot roller; at least one belt is used as an imprinting mold, another as a carrier belt. A thermoplastic film to be imprinted is sandwiched between the two belts that provide preheating, heating and pressing, holding, and cooling for demolding during imprinting, leading to extended mold-substrate contact duration and enhanced heat transfer from the belt mold to the polymer film. R2R thermal imprinting has been performed successfully and promising results have been demonstrated.