18th International Workshop on Radiation Imaging Detectors (IWORID2016)

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In radiation therapy, accurate radiotherapy treatment plan (RTP) reproduction is necessary to optimize the clinical results. Thus, attempts have recently been made to ensure high RTP reproducibility using image-guide radiation therapy (IGRT) technology. However, the clinical use of digital X-ray equipment requires extended quality assurance (QA) for those devices, since the IGRT device quality determines the precision of intensity-modulated radiation therapy. The study described in this paper was focused on developing a multi-energy PbO dosimeter for IGRT device QA. The Schottky-type polycrystalline PbO dosimeter with a Au/PbO/ITO structure was evaluated by comparing its response coincidence, dose linearity, measurement reproducibility, linear attenuation coefficient, and percent depth dose with those of Si diode and standard ionization chamber dosimeters.

The trend of x-ray image sensor has evolved from an amorphous silicon sensor to a crystal silicon sensor. A crystal silicon x-ray sensor, the x-ray CIS (CMOS Image Sensor), embodies three transistors: a Reset Transistor, a Source Follower and a Select Transistor, and a photodiode. They are highly sensitive to radiation exposure and proven to dramatically decrease quality of imaging device when frequency of exposure to radiation increases. The most well-known effect of the x-ray CIS due to the radiation damage are increments in the reset voltage and dark current. These effects cause the quality of image to degrade. To overcome these problems, many sensor recovery methods are studied. Annealing is the best method among many other methods. For the assembled sensor, the heat annealing is most suitable. In this study, a pixel array of the x-ray CIS was made from 1 × 11 pixels and this pixel array was exposed to a high radiation dose. From the irradiated pixel data, we determined the radiation damage of pixels. To recover the sensor for performance improvement, we annealed the irradiated sensor at high temperature.

Energy resolving performance of spectral CT systems is influenced by the accuracy of the detector's energy calibration. Global energy calibration maps a given threshold to the average energy response of all pixels of the detector. Variations arising from CMOS manufacturing processes and properties of the sensor cause different pixels to respond differently to photons of the same energy. Threshold dispersion adversely affects spectral imaging by degrading energy resolution, which contributes to blurring of the energy information. In this paper, we present a technique for per-pixel energy calibration of photon-counting x-ray detectors (PCXDs) that quantifies the energy response of individual pixels relative to the average response. This technique takes advantage of the measurements made by an equalized chip. It uses a known global energy map to quantify the effect of threshold dispersion on the energy response of the detector pixels across an energy range of interest. The proposed technique was assessed using a MARS scanner with an equalized Medipix3RX chip flip-bonded to 2 mm thick CdTe semiconductor crystal at a pitch of 110 μ m. Measurements were made of characteristic x-rays of a molybdenum foil. Results were compared between the case that the global calibration was used on its own and the case of using it in conjunction with our per-pixel calibration technique. The proposed technique quantified up to 1.87 keV error in energy response of 100 pixels of a selected region of interest (ROI). It made an improvement of 28.3% in average FWHM. The additional information provided by this per-pixel calibration technique can be used to improve spectral reconstruction.

Hybrid pixel detectors for X-ray imaging, working in a single photon counting mode, find applications in a variety of fields, such as medical imaging, material science or industry. However, charge sharing, which occurs when a photon hits a detector in the area between two or four pixels, becomes more significant with decreasing pixel size. If the charge generated when a photon interacts with a detector is collected by more than one pixel, the photon energy and the event position may be improperly detected. Therefore, algorithms for minimization of the impact of charge sharing on a pixel detector for X-ray detection need to be implemented. Firstly, such algorithms must be assessed on a simulation level. The goal is to implement the simulations in such a way that the simulation accuracy and simulation time are optimized. A model should be flexible enough so that it can be quickly adapted for other uses. We propose behavioral models implemented in the Cadence® Virtuoso® environment. This is a solution that enables fast validation of the system at the higher level of abstraction allowing deep verification. A readout channel of a chip is represented using parameterized behavioral blocks of different functionality, such as, a charge sensitive amplifier, shapers, discriminators, comparators. The inter-pixel connections are taken into account. This approach enables top-down design and optimization of parameters. The model was implemented in particular to test the C8P1 algorithm used in the Chase Jr. chip, however, due to its modular implementation, it can be easily adjusted to further test of the algorithms. The simulation approach is described and the simulation results are presented together with the experimental data obtained during synchrotron measurements for the Chase Jr. chip with the C8P1 algorithm implemented.

Single photon counting pixel detectors become increasingly popular in various 2-D X-ray imaging techniques and scientific experiments mainly in solid state physics, material science and medicine. This paper presents architecture and measurement results of the UFXC32k chip designed in a CMOS 130 nm process. The chip consists of about 50 million transistors and has an area of 9.64 mm × 20.15 mm. The core of the IC is a matrix of 128 × 256 pixels of 75 μm pitch. Each pixel contains a CSA, a shaper with tunable gain, two discriminators with correction circuits and two 14-bit ripple counters operating in a normal mode (with energy window), a long counter mode (one 28-bit counter) and a zero-dead time mode. Gain and noise performance were verified with X-ray radiation and with the chip connected to Si (320 μm thick) and CdTe (750 μ m thick) sensors.

The experimental set-up for time-resolved studies of ultra-fast photo-induced structural dynamics at the Synchrotron SOLEIL is based on a general pump-probe scheme that has been developed and implemented on the CRISTAL hard X-ray diffraction beamline [1,2]. In a so-called pump-probe cycle, the sample is excited with an ultra-short laser pulse of ≈40 fs duration (the pump), and induced changes in its atomic structure are studied by measuring, with a precisely controlled delay, a diffraction pattern from a single pulse of synchrotron radiation (the probe) with a 2-D pixel detector. An improvement to the classical scheme is proposed, where the sample's response is probed at two different delays after each laser excitation. The first measurement at short delays allows studying the photo-induced dynamics. The second one is a reference measurement taken after sample's relaxation, which permits detection of drifts in the experimental conditions (e.g. beam misalignment, sample degradation). A hybrid pixel detector with a very fast readout time, a high dynamic range and extended linearity was tested to achieve the experiment objectives. In this paper, the first results obtained with the UFXC32k single photon counting detector are presented.

Stellar explosions are relevant and interesting astrophysical phenomena. Since long ago we have been working on the characterization of nova and supernova explosions in X and gamma rays, with the use of space missions such as INTEGRAL, XMM-Newton and Swift. We have been also involved in feasibility studies of future instruments in the energy range from several keV up to a few MeV, in collaboration with other research institutes, such as GRI, DUAL and e-ASTROGAM. High sensitivities are essential to perform detailed studies of cosmic explosions and cosmic accelerators, e.g., Supernovae, Classical Novae, Supernova Remnants (SNRs), Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs). In order to fulfil the combined requirement of high detection efficiency with good spatial and energy resolution, an initial module prototype based on CdTe pixel detectors is being developed. The detector dimensions are 12.5mm x 12.5mm x 2mm, with a pixel pitch of 1mm x 1mm. Each pixel is bump bonded to a fanout board made of Sapphire substrate and routed to the corresponding input channel of the readout ASIC, to measure pixel position and pulse height for each incident gamma-ray photon. An ohmic CdTe pixel detector has been characterised by means of ⁵⁷Co, ¹³³Ba and ²²Na sources. Based on this, its spectroscopic performance and the influence of charge sharing is reported here. The pixel study is complemented by the simulation of the CdTe module performance using the GEANT 4 and MEGALIB tools, which will help us to optimise the pixel size selection.

Direct electron detectors are increasingly used to explore the dynamics of macromolecules in real space and real time using transmission electron microscopy. The purpose of this work is to optimize the most suitable detector configuration of a thin silicon detector by Monte Carlo Simulations. Several simulations were performed to achieve an advanced detector geometry that reduces significantly the background signal due to backscattered electrons resulting in an enhanced imaging performance of the detector. Utilizing DEPFET (DEpleted P-channel Field Effect Transistor) technology and the novel ideas for the optimized detector geometry, a unique direct hit electron detector is currently being produced.

ASIC with a low-noise readout channel for Silicon Drift Detectors in high energy resolution X-ray spectrometry was designed and prototyped in the AMS 350 nm CMOS process via Europractice as a miniASIC. For the analog readout channel tests there was used the detector module SDD-10-130-PTW LTplus-ic (PNDetector GmbH). The measured energy resolution of this module with the designed readout channel: 200 eV (FWHM) at ⁵⁵Fe, -16 °C, 1 kcps and a peaking time of 8 μs.

In order to improve the characterisation of the delivered beams in many types of photon sources, innovative beam profilers based on III/V semiconductor materials (InGaAs/InAlAs) have been deeply investigated. Owing to a tunable and direct band gap these devices allow radiation detection in a wide spectral range. In order to increase the sensitivity of the device in radiation detection charge amplification on the sensor level is implemented. This is obtained by exploiting In_0.75Ga_0.25As/In_0.75Al_0.25As quantum wells (QW) hosting a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) through molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). Internal charge-amplification mechanism can be achieved for very low applied voltages, while the high carrier mobility allows the design of very fast photon detectors with sub-nanosecond response times. This technology has been preliminarily exploited to fabricate prototype beam profilers with a strip geometry (with 50-μm-wide strips). Tests were carried out both with conventional X-ray tubes and at the Elettra synchrotron facility. The results testify how these profilers are capable of reconstructing the shape of the beam, as well as estimating the position of the beam centroid with a precision of about 400 nm. Further measurements with different samples of decreasing thickness have shown how this precision could be further improved by an optimised microfabrication. For this reason a new design, based on a membrane-photodetector, is proposed. Results regarding the spatial resolution as function of the sensor thickness will be presented and discussed.

The European X-ray Free Electron Laser (XFEL.EU) will provide every 0.1 s a train of 2700 spatially coherent ultrashort X-ray pulses at 4.5 MHz repetition rate. The Small Quantum Systems (SQS) instrument and the Spectroscopy and Coherent Scattering instrument (SCS) operate with soft X-rays between 0.5 keV–6 keV. The DEPFET Sensor with Signal Compression (DSSC) detector is being developed to meet the requirements set by these two XFEL.EU instruments. The DSSC imager is a 1 mega-pixel camera able to store up to 800 single-pulse images per train. The so-called ladder is the basic unit of the DSSC detector. It is the single unit out of sixteen identical-units composing the DSSC-megapixel camera, containing all representative electronic components of the full-size system and allows testing the full electronic chain. Each DSSC ladder has a focal plane sensor with 128× 512 pixels. The read-out ASIC provides full-parallel readout of the sensor pixels. Every read-out channel contains an amplifier and an analog filter, an up-to 9 bit ADC and the digital memory. The ASIC amplifier have a double front-end to allow one to use either DEPFET sensors or Mini-SDD sensors. In the first case, the signal compression is a characteristic intrinsic of the sensor; in the second case, the compression is implemented at the first amplification stage. The goal of signal compression is to meet the requirement of single-photon detection capability and wide dynamic range. We present the first results of measurements obtained using a 64× 64 pixel DEPFET sensor attached to the full final electronic and data-acquisition chain.

The Rotational Modulation Collimator (RMC) is a simple and versatile tool for the radiation imaging system with low cost, makes it a reasonable selection for locating and tracking nuclear materials and radiation sources. In this paper, Monte Carlo simulation-based design studies for an alternative RMC which has an extended field-of-view will be presented. Modulation patterns for 5 different hemispherical RMC (H-RMC) designs were simulated for various source locations, and fundamental characteristics of rotational modulation patterns were investigated. Obtained patterns showed variations depending on the source location for most of the H-RMC designs, exhibiting promises for the future development of an omni-directional radiation imager based on a non-position sensitive radiation detector.

Small animal PET plays a major role in studying molecular processes in vivo. However, the spatial resolution of small animal PET is limited by physical effects like positron range, photon non-collinearity, and object scattering. The aim of this project was to minimize the influence of the non-collinearity effect by reducing the distance between the coincidence detectors leading to an improved spatial resolution. A multi-wire proportional chamber-based high-resolution PET scanner (quadHIDAC) was used, offering a spatial resolution of nearly 1 mm FWHM. By removing two opposite detector banks of the 4-detector-setup, the inner distance between the two remaining detector plates could be reduced from 180 mm to 40 mm. List mode acquisitions of a small point source (²²Na) experiment were performed, images were reconstructed (0.25 mm voxel size) using a one-pass list-mode EM algorithm and the FWHM in the radial, tangential, and axial directions was calculated. In addition, a Jaszczak phantom (hole sizes of 0.7 up to 1.2 mm) was acquired with both scanners. The prototype high-resolution PET scanner showed improved spatial resolution in radial (0.9 mm FWHM), tangential (0.9 mm FWHM), and axial (0.8 mm FWHM) direction compared to the quadHIDAC scanner (1.x mm, 1.x mm, 1.x mm), respectively offering clear sub-millimeter imaging. Blurring effects due to photon non-collinearity could be reduced by minimizing the detector distance.

Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) is a well-established scanning electron microscope (SEM)-based technique [1]. It allows the non-destructive mapping of the crystal structure, texture, crystal phase and strain with a spatial resolution of tens of nanometers. Conventionally this is performed by placing an electron sensitive screen, typically consisting of a phosphor screen combined with a charge coupled device (CCD) camera, in front of a specimen, usually tilted 70° to the normal of the exciting electron beam. Recently, a number of authors have shown that a significant increase in spatial resolution is achievable when Kikuchi diffraction patterns are acquired in transmission geometry; that is when diffraction patterns are generated by electrons transmitted through an electron-transparent, usually thinned, specimen. The resolution of this technique, called transmission Kikuchi diffraction (TKD), has been demonstrated to be better than 10 nm [2,3]. We have recently demonstrated the advantages of a direct electron detector, Timepix [4,5], for the acquisition of standard EBSD patterns [5]. In this article we will discuss the advantages of Timepix to perform TKD and for acquiring spot diffraction patterns and more generally for acquiring scanning transmission electron microscopy micrographs in the SEM. Particularly relevant for TKD, is its very compact size, which allows much more flexibility in the positioning of the detector in the SEM chamber. We will furthermore show recent results using Timepix as a virtual forward scatter detector, and will illustrate the information derivable on producing images through processing of data acquired from different areas of the detector. We will show results from samples ranging from gold nanoparticles to nitride semiconductor nanorods.

This work presents a low cost fluorescence life time measurement system, aimed at carrying out fast diagnostic tests through label detection in a portable system so it can be used in a medical consultation, within a short time span. The system uses Time Correlated Single Photon Counting (TCSPC), measuring the arrival time of individual photons and building a histogram of those times, showing the fluorescence decay of the label which is characteristic of each fluorescent substance. The system is implemented using a Xilinx FPGA which controls the experiment and includes a Time to Digital Converter (TDC) to perform measurements with a resolution in the order of tenths of picoseconds. Also included are a laser diode and the driving electronics to generate short pulses as well as a HV-CMOS implemented Single Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD) as a high gain sensor. The system is entirely configurable so it can easily be adapted to the target label molecule and measurement needs. The histogram is constructed within the FPGA and can then be read as convenient. Various performance parameters are also shown, as well as experimental measurements of a quantum dot fluorescence decay as a proof of concept.

X-ray phase contrast imaging arises from changes of the propagation direction of the radiant wave field when traversing the object and it can yield higher contrast for soft tissues than conventional x-ray radiology based on attenuation. Commonly intermediate steps are required to transform wave front modulations into intensity modulations measurable by the detection system. One of these phase contrast techniques is analyzer-based imaging (ABI), which utilizes an analyzer crystal as angular filter with a bandwidth in the micro-radian regime placed between the sample and the detector. Furthermore employing appropriate algorithms, attenuation, refraction and scattering/dark field images can be extracted providing complementary information. The implementation of ABI requires X-ray optics with very high stability and micro-radian resolution. In return, this method possesses an extremely high sensitivity among the phase contrast techniques. At the medical beamline of the Italian synchrotron ELETTRA, a patient room has been implemented in order to perform clinical mammography with free-space propagation phase contrast. In this work we have tested the feasibility of ABI in a preclinical set-up implementing the system in the patient room. High quality images of breast tissues samples are presented and compared to images acquired at a conventional mammography unit. The system has shown excellent stability and imaging performances.

Developing front-end electronics to improve charge detection and time resolution in gamma-ray detectors is one of the main tasks to improve performance in new multimodal imaging systems that merge information of Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Gamma Camera or PET tomographs.

The aim of this work is to study the behaviour and to optimize the performance of an ASIC for PET and Gamma Camera applications based on SiPMs detectors. PETIROC2 is a commercial ASIC developed by Weeroc to provide accurate charge and time coincidence resolutions. It has 32 analog input channels that are independently managed. Each channel is divided into two signals, one for time stamping using a TDC and another for charge measurement. In this work, PETIROC2 is evaluated in an experimental setup composed of two pixelated LYSO crystals based detectors, each coupled to a Hamamatsu 4×4 SiPM array. Both detectors are working in coincidence with a separation distance between them that can be modified.

In the present work, an energy resolution of 13.6% FWHM and a time coincidence resolution of 815 ps FWHM have been obtained. These results will be useful to optimize and improve PETIROC2 based PET and Gamma Camera systems.

We propose a novel high performance radiation detector and imaging sensor by a ground-breaking core-shell diode array design. This novel core-shell diode array are expected to have superior performance respect to ultrahigh radiation hardness, high sensitivity, low power consumption, fast signal response and high spatial resolution simultaneously. These properties are highly desired in fundamental research such as high energy physics (HEP) at CERN, astronomy and future x-ray based protein crystallography at x-ray free electron laser (XFEL) etc.. This kind of detectors will provide solutions for these fundamental research fields currently limited by instrumentations. In this work, we report our progress on the development of core-shell diode array for the applications as high performance imaging sensors and particle detectors. We mainly present our results in the preparation of high aspect ratio regular silicon rods by metal assisted wet chemical etching technique. Nearly 200 μm deep and 2 μm width channels with high aspect ratio have been etched into silicon. This result will open many applications not only for the core-shell diode array, but also for a high density integration of 3D microelectronics devices.

Optical and scintillation properties of pure Cs₂HfCl₆ (CHC) single crystals were investigated. In particular, light output and energy resolution were measured using a Si avalanche photodiode (Si-APD), since the Si-APD has sufficient quantum efficiency of around 70 % at emission wavelength region of CHC around 420 nm. This CHC single crystal grown using the vertical Bridgeman method showed light output of 37,000± 2,000 photons/MeV . The FWHM energy resolution was determined to be 3.7± 0.5× (E/662 keV)^{−0.85± 0.03}[%], where E [keV] is the gamma-ray energy. Moreover, the temperature dependence of the light output was stable from −5 to 30 ^oC, while the light output increased below −10 ^oC.

In mammography the difficult task to detect microcalcifications (≈ 100 μm) and low contrast structures in the breast has been a topic of interest from its beginnings. The possibility to improve the image quality requires the effort to employ novel X-ray imaging techniques, such as phase-contrast, and high resolution detectors. Phase-contrast techniques are promising tools for medical diagnosis because they provide additional and complementary information to traditional absorption-based X-ray imaging methods. In this work a Hamamatsu microfocus X-ray source with tungsten anode and a photon counting detector (Timepix operated in Medipix mode) was used. A significant improvement in the detection of phase-effects using Medipix detector was observed in comparison to an standard flat-panel detector. An optimization of geometrical parameters reveals the dependency on the X-ray propagation path and the small angle deviation. The quantification of these effects was achieved taking into account the image noise, contrast, spatial resolution of the phase-enhancement, absorbed dose, and energy dependence.

We developed Time-over-Threshold based digital PET (TODPET2) tomograph using silicon photomultipliers (SiPM) arrays coupled with pixelized Ce:Gd₃(Ga, Al)₅O₁₂ (Ce:GAGG) scintillators dedicated for non-invasive measurement of blood RI concentrations. The detector consists of 1.57 × 1.57 mm² SiPM chips and 1.6 × 1.6 × 15 mm³ Ce:GAGG scintillators arranged on a 12 × 12 channel, both working as individual readout systems. After the development of the detector, we fabricated the PET gantry composed of 8 pieces of SiPM/Ce:GAGG detector array which signals were sent to the current-comparing type time-over-threshold (TOT) ASIC for individual readout of pixels. The PET scanner which we developed has 25 mm axial field-of-view (FOV) and 60 mm transaxial FOV. The spatial resolution reconstructed with maximum likelihood estimation method (MLEM) is 0.98 mm (FWHM) at the center of FOV. The sensitivity of the system is measured to be 1.31% using ²²Na point source. Finally, timing response to changes in RI concentration was also measured using 5 mm diameter syringe injected with several concentrations of 18FDG.

Previous works onchromium compensated gallium arsenide (GaAs:Cr) have shown high efficiency, good spatial and energy resolution, which is obviously connected with the high quality of material itself. The purpose of this research was to aggravate the diffusion process by increasing the annealing temperature and to observe whether there will be any degradation of material characteristics. The investigation of three 3-inch GaAs:Cr wafers with different annealing temperature of chromium was carried out. Resistivity and mobility-lifetime measurements were made using pad sensors made of these wafers. The I-V curves were built to estimate the resistivity across the wafer. Furthermore charge collection efficiency (CCE) measurements were carried out in order to estimate the μ_eτ _e product of GaAs:Cr. The resistivity mapping has showed a variation of resistivity across the wafer in the range from 1.25 × 10⁹ to 5.5 × 10⁸ Ohm cm. Although the third wafer showed quite good uniformity, the resistance didn't reached values higher than 3.5 × 10⁸ Ohm cm. In spite of harsh diffusion conditions all the materials showed quite good CCE (about 90%) and μ _eτ_e more than 5 × 10⁻⁵ cm²/V. Also a strong dependency between the resistivity and mobility-lifetime product was found only for one wafer. So the uniformity of μ_eτ _e product across the wafer can be stated independently of resistivity. More detailed information and discussion of experimental results is presented in the article.

There are numerous applications for which is advantageous to obtain X-ray transmission data necessary for 3D computed tomography (CT) within seconds or faster. The required high frame rates for data acquisition became available during the last decade due to intensive synchrotron radiation sources together with appropriate X-ray imaging detectors. It will be shown in this work that sub-second recording of the full CT data set can be reached even in laboratory conditions employing high power microfocus tubes together with a semiconductor pixelated detector. As an example, bubbles nucleation and evolution during dissolving of a pill in the water, releasing carbon dioxide will be shown in 3D with 2 Hz time resolution.

We have developed monolithic CMOS pixel sensor using fully-depleted (FD) silicon-on-insulator (SOI) pixel process technology. The SOI substrates consist of high-resistivity silicon with p-n junctions and low-resistivity silicon layers for forming SOI-CMOS circuitry. Tungsten vias are used to make connections between p-n junctions in the silicon substrate and the first metal layers in the top-layer circuitry. Using this sensor construction, high sensor gain in small pixel areas can be achieved. In 2014, a high-resolution, integrated SOI pixel sensor, called INTPIX8, was developed with two types of substrates: a float-zone, p-type layer on a single SOI (SSOI) wafer and a Czochralski, p-type layer on a double SOI (DSOI) wafer. The X-ray spectra were obtained using Am-241 radiation source. The SSOI-based and DSOI-based sensors exhibited different levels of sensor gain and there were no large differences in the noise levels between them.

Challenging detector requirements are imposed by the physics goals at the future multi-TeV e⁺ e⁻ Compact Linear Collider (CLIC). A single point resolution of 3 μm for the vertex detector and 7 μm for the tracker is required. Moreover, the CLIC vertex detector and tracker need to be extremely light weighted with a material budget of 0.2% X₀ per layer in the vertex detector and 1–2% X₀ in the tracker. A fast time slicing of 10 ns is further required to suppress background from beam-beam interactions. A wide range of sensor and readout ASIC technologies are investigated within the CLIC silicon pixel R&D effort. Various hybrid planar sensor assemblies with a pixel size of 25×25 μm² and 55×55 μm² have been produced and characterised by laboratory measurements and during test-beam campaigns. Experimental and simulation results for thin (50 μm–500 μm) slim edge and active-edge planar, and High-Voltage CMOS sensors hybridised to various readout ASICs (Timepix, Timepix3, CLICpix) are presented.

In most cases, a PET system has numerous electrical components and channel circuits and thus it would rather be a bulky product. Also, most existing systems receive analog signals from detectors which make them vulnerable to signal distortions. For these reasons, channel reduction techniques are important. In this work, an ASIC for PET module is being proposed. An ASIC chip for 16 PET detector channels, VSSPDC, has been designed and simulated. The main function of the chip is 16-to-1 channel reduction, i.e., finding the position of only the valid signals, signal timing, and magnitudes in all 16 channels at every recorded event. The ASIC comprises four of 4-channel modules and a 2^nd 4-to-1 router. A single channel module comprises a transimpedance amplifier for the silicon photomultipliers, dual comparators with high and low level references, and a logic circuitry. While the high level reference was used to test the validity of the signal, the low level reference was used for the timing. The 1-channel module of the ASIC produced an energy pulse by time-over-threshold method and it also produced a time pulse with a fixed delayed time. Since the ASIC chip outputs only a few digital pulses and does not require an external clock, it has an advantage over noise properties. The cadence simulation showed the good performance of the chip as designed.

With the planned upgrade of the ALICE Time Projection Chamber (TPC) the current readout technology will be replaced by a Gas Electron Multiplier (GEM)—based readout technology in order to allow for a continuous operation at high interaction rates up to 50 kHz. A stack of four GEM stages with non-standard field configuration was chosen to achieve a suppression of the ion backflow below 1%, while maintaining a good energy resolution below σ / E= \unit[12]% for ⁵⁵ Fe. A discharge probability of 10⁻¹⁰ for α-particles was confirmed for this low ion backflow field configuration. This is comparable to standard triple GEM detectors in low discharge settings. To upgrade all the Inner and Outer Readout Chambers of ALICE, 576 GEM foils will be needed. Only GEM foils that fullfill the highest quality criteria can be used. Therefore a quality assurance scheme has been developed that includes a large set of quality assurance measurements.

MÖNCH is a hybrid silicon pixel detector based on charge integration and with analog readout, featuring a pixel size of 25×25 μm². The latest working prototype consists of an array of 400×400 identical pixels for a total active area of 1×1 cm². Its design is optimized for the single photon regime. An exhaustive characterization of this large area prototype has been carried out in the past months, and it confirms an ENC in the order of 35 electrons RMS and a dynamic range of ∼4×12 keV photons in high gain mode, which increases to ∼100×12 keV photons with the lowest gain setting. The low noise levels of MÖNCH make it a suitable candidate for X-ray detection at energies around 1 keV and below. Imaging applications in particular can benefit significantly from the use of MÖNCH: due to its extremely small pixel pitch, the detector intrinsically offers excellent position resolution. Moreover, in low flux conditions, charge sharing between neighboring pixels allows the use of position interpolation algorithms which grant a resolution at the micrometer-level. Its energy reconstruction and imaging capabilities have been tested for the first time at a low energy beamline at PSI, with photon energies between 1.75 keV and 3.5 keV, and results will be shown.

Here we present new result on the testing of a Germanium sensor for X-ray radiation. The system is made of 3 × 2 Medipix3RX chips, bump-bonded to a monolithic sensor, and is called ``hexa''. Its dimensions are 45 × 30 mm² and the sensor thickness was 1.5 mm. The total number of the pixels is 393216 in the matrix 768 × 512 with pixel pitch 55 μ m. Medipix3RX read-out chip provides photon counting read-out with single photon sensitivity. The sensor is cooled to −126°C and noise levels together with flat field response are measured. For −200 V polarization bias, leakage current was 4.4 mA (3.2 μ A/mm²). Due to higher leakage around 2.5% of all pixels stay non-responsive. More than 99% of all pixels are bump bonded correctly. In this paper we present the experimental set-up, threshold equalization procedure, image acquisition and the technique for bump bond quality estimate.

Single crystal CVD diamond has many desirable properties as a radiation detector; exceptional radiation hardness and physical hardness, chemical inertness, low Z (close to human tissue, good for dosimetry and transmission mode applications), wide bandgap (high temperature operation with low noise and solar blind), an intrinsic pathway to fast neutron detection through the ¹²C(n,α)⁹Be reaction. This combination of radiation hardness, temperature tolerance and ability to detect mixed radiation types with a single sensor makes diamond particularly attractive as a detector material for harsh environments such as nuclear power station monitoring (fission and fusion) and oil well logging. Effective exploitation of these properties requires the development of a metallisation scheme to give contacts that remain stable over extended periods at elevated temperatures (up to 250°C in this instance). Due to the cost of the primary detector material, computational modelling is essential to best utilise the available processing methods for optimising sensor response through geometry and conversion media configurations and to fully interpret experimental data. Monte Carlo simulations of our diamond based sensor have been developed, using MCNP6 and FLUKA2011, assessing the sensor performance in terms of spectral response and overall efficiency as a function of the detector and converter geometry. Sensors with varying metallisation schemes for high temperature operation have been fabricated at Brunel University London and by Micron Semiconductor Limited. These sensors have been tested under a varied set of conditions including irradiation with fast neutrons and alpha particles at high temperatures. The presented study indicates that viable metallisation schemes for high temperature contacts have been successfully developed and the modelling results, supported by preliminary experimental data from partners, indicate that the simulations provide a reasonable representation of detector response.

Producing of large area matrix detectors based on semiconductor materials with high atomic number suitable for the registration of the synchrotron radiation of high intensity in the photon energy range 20–90 keV is a relevant technological challenge of our time. This will develop a fundamentally new experimental base of scientific research conducted at leading X-ray synchrotron centers with high luminosity beams. The paper analyzes the possibility of using 4 inch gallium arsenide wafers to create a high-resistive GaAs:Cr detector quality structures on their basis and detector arrays of large area.

The fully depleted monolithic active pixel sensor (DMAPS) is a new concept integrating full CMOS circuitry onto a fully depletable silicon substrate wafer. The realization of prototypes of the DMAPS concept relies on the availability of multiple well CMOS processes and high resistive substrates. The CMOS foundry ESPROS Photonics offers both and was chosen for prototyping. Two prototypes, EPCB01 and EPCB02, were developed in a 150 nm process on a high resistive n-type wafer of 50 μm thickness. The prototypes have 352 square pixels of 40 μm pitch and small n-well charge collection node with very low capacitance (n⁺-implantation size: 5 μm by 5 μm) and about 150 transistors per pixel (CSA and discriminator plus a small digital part).

Photon counting detectors Timepix are known for their unique properties enabling X-ray imaging with extremely high contrast-to-noise ratio. Their applicability has been recently further improved since a dedicated technique for assembling large area Timepix detector arrays was introduced. Despite the fact that the sensitive area of Timepix detectors has been significantly increased, the pixel pitch is kept unchanged (55 microns). This value is much larger compared to widely used and popular X-ray imaging cameras utilizing scintillation crystals and CCD-based read-out. On the other hand, photon counting detectors provide steeper point-spread function. Therefore, with given effective pixel size of an acquired radiography, Timepix detectors provide higher spatial resolution than X-ray cameras with scintillation-based devices unless the image is affected by penumbral blur. In this paper we take an advance of steep PSF of photon counting detectors and test the possibility to improve the quality of computed tomography reconstruction using finer sampling of reconstructed voxel space. The achieved results are presented in comparison with data acquired under the same conditions using a commercially available state-of-the-art CCD X-ray camera.

Coded aperture imaging transcends planar imaging with conventional collimators in efficiency and Field of View (FOV). We present experimental results for the detection of 141 keV and 122 keV γ-photons emitted by uniformly extended ^99mTc and ⁵⁷Co hot-spots along with simulations of uniformly and normally extended ^99mTc hot-spots. These results prove that the method can be used for intra-operative imaging of radio-traced sentinel nodes and thyroid remnants. The study is performed using a setup of two gamma cameras, each consisting of a coded-aperture (or mask) of Modified Uniformly Redundant Array (MURA) of rank 19 positioned on top of a CdTe detector. The detector pixel pitch is 350 μm and its active area is 4.4 × 4.4 cm², while the mask element size is 1.7 mm. The detectable photon energy ranges from 15 keV up to 200 keV with an energy resolution of 3–4 keV FWHM. Triangulation is exploited to estimate the 3D spatial coordinates of the radioactive spots within the system FOV. Two extended sources, with uniform distributed activity (11 and 24 mm in diameter, respectively), positioned at 16 cm from the system and with 3 cm distance between their centers, can be resolved and localized with accuracy better than 5%. The results indicate that the estimated positions of spatially extended sources lay within their volume size and that neighboring sources, even with a low level of radioactivity, such as 30 MBq, can be clearly distinguished with an acquisition time about 3 seconds.

The tissue type resolving X-ray radiography and tomography can be performed even without contrast agents. The differences between soft tissue types such as kidney, muscles, fat, liver, brain and spleen were measured based on their spectral response. The Timepix based X-ray imaging detector WidePIX_2×5 with 300 μm thick silicon sensors was used for most of the measurements presented in this work. These promising results are used for further optimizations of the detector technology and radiographic methods.

The growing interest for new scintillation crystals with outstanding imaging performances (i.e. resolution and efficiency) has suggested the study of recently discovered scintillators named CRY018 and CRY019. The crystals under investigation are monolithic and have shown enhanced characteristics both for gamma ray spectrometry and for Nuclear Medicine imaging applications such as the dual isotope imaging. Moreover, the non-hygroscopic nature and the absence of afterglow make these scintillators even more attractive for the potential improvement in a wide range of applications. These scintillation crystals show a high energy resolution in the energy range involved in Nuclear Medicine, allowing the discrimination between very close energy values. Moreover, in order to prove their suitability of being powerful imaging systems, the imaging performances like the position linearity and the intrinsic spatial resolution have been evaluated obtaining satisfactory results thanks to the implementation of an optimized algorithm for the images reconstruction.

The design of the analog front-end of the STS/MUCH-XYTER2 ASIC, a full-size prototype chip for the Silicon Tracking System (STS, based on double-sided silicon strip sensors) and Muon Chamber (MUCH, based on gas sensors) detectors is presented. The ASIC contains 128 charge processing channels, each built of a charge sensitive amplifier, a polarity selection circuit and two pulse shaping amplifiers forming two parallel signal paths. The first path is used for timing measurement with a fast discriminator. The second path allows low-noise amplitude measurement with a 5-bit continuous-time flash ADC. Different operating conditions and constraints posed by two target detectors' applications require front-end electronics flexibility to meet extended system-wise requirements. The presented circuit implements switchable shaper peaking time, gain switching and trimming, input amplifier pulsed reset circuit, fail-safe measures. The power consumption is scalable (for the STS and the MUCH modes), but limited to 10 mW/channel.

A rotating modulation collimator (RMC) is an indirect imaging technique that has proven useful for remote radiation source detection. While it was initially invented for detecting sources in a far field, a recent development by Kowash has shown the feasibility of the RMC for detecting mid-range sources. However, their image reconstruction algorithm often produces spurious source estimates in pixels where no source exists. In this paper, we propose to improve the RMC image quality using a variance stabilizing transform. The transform reduces the inhomogeneous Poisson noise in the RMC data. In our simulation study, the proposed algorithm could reconstruct RMC images without misleading artifacts.

The overall noise performances and first synchrotron beam measurement results of CPIXETEG3b, the first counting type Silicon-On-Insulator (SOI) pixel sensor prototype without crosstalk issue, are reported. The prototype includes a 64 × 64 pixel matrix with 50 μm pitch size. Each pixel consists of an N-in-P charge collection diode, a charge sensitive preamplifier, a shaper, a discriminator with thresholds adjustable by an in-pixel 4-bit DAC, and a 6-bit counter. The study was performed using the beam line 14A at KEK Photon Factory (KEK-PF) . The homogeneous response of the prototype, including charging-sharing effects between pixels were studied. 16 keV and 8 keV monochromatic small size (∼ 10 μm diameter) X-ray beams were used for the charge sharing study, and a flat-field was added for homogenous response investigation. The overall detector homogeneity and the influence of basic detector parameters on charge sharing between pixels has been investigated.

PLATO is a prototype hybrid X-ray photon counting detector that has been designed to meet the specifications for plasma diagnostics for the WEST tokamak platform (Tungsten (W) Environment in Steady-state Tokamak) in southern France, with potential perspectives for ITER. PLATO represents a customized solution that fulfills high sensitivity, low dispersion and high photon counting rate. The PLATO prototype matrix is composed of 16 × 18 pixels with a 70 μm pixel pitch. New techniques have been used in analog sensitive blocks to minimize noise coupling through supply rails and substrate, and to suppress threshold dispersion across the matrix. The PLATO ASIC is designed in CMOS 0.13 μm technology and was submitted for a fabrication run in June 2016. The chip is designed to be bump-bonded to a silicon sensor. This paper presents pixel architecture as well as simulation results while highlighting novel solutions.

Ionizing energy transfer mechanisms due to the excited argon atoms, called Penning transfers, have been investigated for various Ar − CO₂ mixtures at 0.4, 0.8, 1.2 and 1.8 atm gas pressures. The Penning energy transfer probabilities are extracted from the systematic gas gain measurements carried out in cylindrical proportional counters. In this report, contributions of the several transfer processes are identified by studying the pressure and mixing proportion dependence of the transfer rates with a model.

Proton Computed Tomography (pCT) is a medical imaging method with a potential for increasing accuracy of treatment planning and patient positioning in hadron therapy. A pCT system based on a Silicon microstrip tracker and a YAG:Ce crystal calorimeter has been developed within the INFN Prima-RDH collaboration. The prototype has been tested with a 175 MeV proton beam at The Svedberg Laboratory (Uppsala, Sweden) with the aim to reconstruct and characterize a tomographic image. Algebraic iterative reconstruction methods (ART), together with the most likely path formalism, have been used to obtain tomographies of an inhomogeneous phantom to eventually extract density and spatial resolutions. These results will be presented and discussed together with an estimation of the average dose delivered to the phantom and the dependence of the image quality on the dose. Due to the heavy computation load required by the algebraic algorithms the reconstruction programs have been implemented to fully exploit the high calculation parallelism of Graphics Processing Units. An extended field of view pCT system is in an advanced construction stage. This apparatus will be able to reconstruct objects of the size of a human head making possible to characterize this pCT approach in a pre-clinical environment.

The mixed-signal PRIMA-chip has been developed for sensitive-position silicon detector in proton imaging application. The chip is based upon the binary readout architecture which, providing fully parallel signal processing, is a good solution for high intensity radiation application. It includes 32-front-end channels with a charge preamplifier, a shaper and a comparator. In order to adjust the comparator thresholds, each channel contains a 8-bit DAC, programmed using an I2C like interface. The PRIMA-chip has been fabricated using the AMS 0.35 μm standard CMOS process and its performances have been tested coupling it to the detectors used in the tracker assembled for the pCT (proton Computed Tomography) apparatus.

Charge sharing is the fractional collection of the charge cloud generated in a detector by two or more adjacent pixels. It may lead to excessive or inefficient registration of hits comparing to the number of impinging photons depending on how discrimination thresholds are set in typical photon counting pixel detector. The problems are particularly exposed for fine pixel sizes and/or for thick planar detectors. Presence of charge sharing is one of the limiting factors that discourages decreasing sizes of pixels in photon counting mode X-ray radiation imaging systems. Currently, a few different approaches tackling with the charge sharing problem exist (e.g. Medipix3RX, PIXIE, miniVIPIC or PIX45). The general idea is, first, to reconstruct the entire signal from adjacent pixels and, secondly, to allocate the hit to a single pixel. This paper focuses on the latter part of the process, i.e. on a comparison of how different hit allocation algorithms affect the spatial accuracy and false registration vs. missed hit probability. Different hit allocation algorithms were simulated, including standard photon counting (no full signal reconstruction) and the C8P1 algorithm. Also, a novel approach, based on a detection of patterns, with significantly limited analog signal processing, was proposed and characterized.

In order to increase its discovery potential, the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) accelerator will be upgraded in the next decade. The high luminosity LHC (HL-LHC) period requires new sensor technologies to cope with increasing radiation fluences and particle rates. The ATLAS experiment will replace the entire inner tracking detector with a completely new silicon-only system. 3D pixel sensors are promising candidates for the innermost layers of the Pixel detector due to their excellent radiation hardness at low operation voltages and low power dissipation at moderate temperatures. Recent developments of 3D sensors for the HL-LHC are presented.

Owing to their intrinsic (geometry dependent) radiation hardness, 3D pixel sensors are promising candidates for the innermost tracking layers of the forthcoming experiment upgrades at the "Phase 2" High-Luminosity LHC (HL-LHC) . To this purpose, extreme radiation hardness up to the expected maximum fluence of 2 × 10¹⁶ n_eq.cm⁻² must come along with several technological improvements in a new generation of 3D pixels, i.e., increased pixel granularity (50 × 50 or 25 × 100 μ m² cell size), thinner active region (∼ 100 μm), narrower columnar electrodes (∼ 5 μm diameter) with reduced inter-electrode spacing (∼ 30 μm), and very slim edges (∼ 100 μm). The fabrication of the first batch of these new 3D sensors was recently completed at FBK on Si-Si direct wafer bonded 6" substrates. Initial electrical test results, performed at wafer level on sensors and test structures, highlighted very promising performance, in good agreement with TCAD simulations: low leakage current (< 1 pA/column), intrinsic breakdown voltage of more than 150 V, capacitance of about 50 fF/column, thus assessing the validity of the design approach. A large variety of pixel sensors compatible with both existing (e.g., ATLAS FEI4 and CMS PSI46) and future (e.g., RD53) read-out chips were fabricated, that were also electrically tested on wafer using a temporary metal layer patterned as strips shorting rows of pixels together. This allowed a statistically significant distribution of the relevant electrical quantities to be obtained, thus gaining insight into the impact of process-induced defects. A few 3D strip test structures were irradiated with X-rays, showing inter-strip resistance of at least several GΩ  even after 50 Mrad(Si) dose, thus proving the p-spray robustness. We present the most important design and technological aspects, and results obtained from the initial investigations.

X-ray micro radiography with the hybrid pixel detectors provides versatile tool for the object inspection in various fields of science. It has proven itself especially suitable for the samples with low intrinsic attenuation contrast (e.g. soft tissue in biology, plastics in material sciences, thin paint layers in cultural heritage, etc.). The limited size of single Medipix type detector (1.96 cm²) was recently overcome by the construction of large area detectors WidePIX assembled of Timepix chips equipped with edgeless silicon sensors. The largest already built device consists of 100 chips and provides fully sensitive area of 14.3 × 14.3 cm² without any physical gaps between sensors. The pixel resolution of this device is 2560 × 2560 pixels (6.5 Mpix). The unique modular detector layout requires special processing of acquired data to avoid occurring image distortions. It is necessary to use several geometric compensations after standard corrections methods typical for this type of pixel detectors (i.e. flat-field, beam hardening correction). The proposed geometric compensations cover both concept features and particular detector assembly misalignment of individual chip rows of large area detectors based on Timepix assemblies. The former deals with larger border pixels in individual edgeless sensors and their behaviour while the latter grapple with shifts, tilts and steps between detector rows. The real position of all pixels is defined in Cartesian coordinate system and together with non-binary reliability mask it is used for the final image interpolation. The results of geometric corrections for test wire phantoms and paleo botanic material are presented in this article.

We describe the characterization of TimepixCam, a novel camera used to time-stamp optical photons. The camera employs a specialized silicon sensor with a thin entrance window, read out by a Timepix ASIC. TimepixCam is able to record and time-stamp light flashes exceeding 1,000 photons with 15 ns time resolution. Specially produced photodiodes were used to evaluate the quantum efficiency, which was determined to be higher than 90% in the wavelength range of 430–900 nm. The quantum efficiency, sensitivity and ion detection efficiency were compared for a variety of sensors with different surface treatments. Sensors with the thinnest window, 50 nm, had the best performance.

The SYRMA-CT project aims to set-up the first clinical trial of phase-contrast breast Computed Tomography with synchrotron radiation at the SYRMEP beamline of Elettra, the Italian synchrotron light source. The challenge in a dedicated breast CT is to match a high spatial resolution with a low dose level. In order to fulfil these requirements, the SYRMA-CT project uses a large area CdTe single photon counting detector (Pixirad-8), simultaneous algebraic reconstruction technique (SART) and phase retrieval pre-processing. This work investigates the imaging performances of the system in a continuous acquisition mode and with a low dose level towards the clinical application. A custom test object and a large surgical sample have been studied.

A part of the upcoming HL-LHC upgrade of the ATLAS Detector is the construction of a new Inner Tracker. This upgrade opens new possibilities, but also presents challenges in terms of occupancy and radiation tolerance. For the pixel detector inside the inner tracker, hybrid modules containing passive silicon sensors and connected readout chips are presently used, but require expensive assembly techniques like fine-pitch bump bonding. Silicon devices fabricated in standard commercial CMOS technologies, which include part or all of the readout chain, are also investigated offering a reduced cost as they are cheaper per unit area than traditional silicon detectors. If they contain the full readout chain, as for a fully monolithic approach, there is no need for the expensive flip-chip assembly, resulting in a further cost reduction and material savings. In the outer pixel layers of the ATLAS Inner Tracker, the pixel sensors must withstand non-ionising energy losses of up to 10¹⁵ n/cm² and offer a timing resolution of 25 ns or less. This paper presents test results obtained on a monolithic test chip, the TowerJazz 180nm Investigator, towards these specifications. The presented program of radiation hardness and timing studies has been launched to investigate this technology's potential for the new ATLAS Inner Tracker.

In this work, we present the performance characteristics of the MAMMOCARE PET prototype based on an adaptation of the NU 4-2008 NEMA standard. MAMMOCARE is a project under the European Commission's 7th Framework programme to develop a breast biopsy system guided by a dedicated breast PET (dbPET) images. The PET system is formed by two rings with twelve detector modules each. The transaxial FOV is 170 mm and the axial FOV is 94 mm. The system can separate the detectors up to 60 mm in transaxial plane to allow the biopsy needle entrance. The acquisitions are reconstructed using the LMOS algorithm with tube-of-response (TOR) backprojector, 1 iteration and 16 subsets. The voxel and pixel sizes are (1 × 1 × 1) mm³ and (1.6 × 1.6) mm² respectively. The radial resolution measured is 1.62 mm in the center of the FOV and 3.45 mm at 50 mm off the center in the radial direction using the closed configuration. In the open configuration the resolution reaches 1.85 mm and 3.65 mm at center and at 50 mm off-center. The adapted recovery coefficients (ARC) are measured for six hot rods inside a cylindrical phantom with a warm background. The ratio between hot and background regions is 10. The ARC values for the closed configuration are 0.32, 0.77 and 0.96 for the inserts with a diameter of 4.5 mm, 8.3 mm and 25 mm, respectively. These values decrease to 0.16, 0.52 and 0.77 for the open configuration. The sensitivity measured using an energy window of 250 keV–750 keV is 3.6% and 2.5% for the closed and open configurations respectively. The NEC peak is 141 kcps@68 MBq and 147 kcps@78 MBq for closed and open configurations. The performance characteristics measured with the open ring configuration decreases with respect the closed configuration, however the values remain comparable to other dbPETs.

The Circular Electron Positron Collider (CEPC) proposed by the Chinese high energy physics community is aiming to measure Higgs particles and their interactions precisely. The tracking detector including Silicon Inner Tracker (SIT) and Forward Tracking Disks (FTD) has driven stringent requirements on sensor technologies in term of spatial resolution, power consumption and readout speed. CMOS Pixel Sensor (CPS) is a promising candidate to approach these requirements. This paper presents the preliminary studies on the sensor optimization for tracking detector to achieve high collection efficiency while keeping necessary spatial resolution. Detailed studies have been performed on the charge collection using a 0.18 μm CMOS image sensor process. This process allows high resistivity epitaxial layer, leading to a significant improvement on the charge collection and therefore improving the radiation tolerance. Together with the simulation results, the first exploratory prototype has bee designed and fabricated. The prototype includes 9 different pixel arrays, which vary in terms of pixel pitch, diode size and geometry. The total area of the prototype amounts to 2 × 7.88 mm².

In this study, The blending effect of CdSe quantum dots (QDs) dispersed in a poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT):phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) active layer was investigated to improve the sensitivity of indirect-type X-ray detectors. 3 different sizes of CdSe QDs (5, 7, and 9 nm) were blended in P3HT:PCBM (weight ratio of 1:1) layers. The 5 nm-QD blended condition showed relatively high short circuit current density (J_sc), power conversion efficiency (PCE), and sensitivity. The optimal amount of 5nm-QDs in the P3HT:PCBM layer was also investigated in the range of 0 to 4 mg. As the final outcome, the detector fabricated with 3 mg of 5 nm-QDs in the active layer showed the highest sensitivity of 220.08 nC/mR·cm², which was 28% higher than the sensitivity of the pristine P3HT:PCBM detector. Through the addition of the optimal amount of CdSe QDs to the P3HT:PCBM layer, the sensitivity of the X-ray detector was enhanced due to the increment of photon-absorption and charge transport.

We present a gamma detection module optimized for very high resolution PET applications, able to resolve arrays of scintillating crystals with sub-millimeter pitch. The detector is composed of a single ceramic substrate (LTCC): it hosts four flip-chip mounted PETA5 ASICs on the bottom side and an array of SiPM sensors on the top surface, fabricated in HD-RGB technology by FBK. Each chip has 36 channels, for a maximum of 144 readout channels on a sensitive area of about 32 mm × 32 mm. The module is MR-compatible. The thermal decoupling of the readout electronics from the photon sensors is obtained with an efficient internal liquid channel, integrated within the ceramic substrate. Two modules have been designed, based on different SiPM topologies:

• Light spreader-based: an array of 12 × 12 SiPMs, with an overall pitch of 2.5 mm, is coupled with a scintillators array using a 1 mm thick glass plate. The light from one crystal is spread over a group of SiPMs, which are read out in parallel using PETA5 internal neighbor logic.

• Interpolating SiPM-based: ISiPMs are intrinsic position-sensitive sensors. The photon diodes in the array are connected to one of the four available outputs so that the center of gravity of any bunch of detected photons can be reconstructed using a proper weight function of the read out amplitudes. An array of ISiPMs, each 7.5 mm× 5 mm sized, is directly coupled with the scintillating crystals.

Both modules can clearly resolve LYSO arrays with a pitch of only 0.833 mm. The detector can be adjusted for clinical PET, where it has already shown ToF resolution of about 230 ps CRT at FWHM. The module designs, their features and results are described.

In the recent years, the method of single photon counting X-ray μ-CT is being actively developed and applied in various fields. Results of our studies carried out using the MARS μ-CT scanner equipped with GaAs Medipix-based camera are presented. The procedure of mechanical alignment of the scanner is described, including direct and indirect measurements of the spatial resolution. The software chain for data processing and reconstruction has been developed and reported. We demonstrate the possibility to apply the scanner for research in geology and medicine and provide demo images of geological samples (chrome spinellids, titanium magnetite ore) and medical samples (atherosclerotic plaque, abdominal aortic aneurysm). The first results of multi-energy scans using GaAs:Cr-based camera are shown.

Silicon photodiodes are very useful devices as X-ray beam monitors in synchrotron radiation beamlines. Owing to Si absorption, devices thinner than 10 μ m are needed to achieve transmission over 90% for energies above 10 keV . In this work, new segmented four-quadrant diodes for beam alignment purposes are fabricated on both ultrathin (10 μ m-thick) and bulk silicon substrates. Four-quadrant diodes implementing different design parameters as well as auxiliary test structures (single diodes and MOS capacitors) are studied. An extensive electrical characterization, including current-voltage (I-V) and capacitance-voltage (C-V) techniques, is carried out on non-irradiated and gamma-irradiated devices up to 100 Mrad doses. Special attention is devoted to the study of radiation-induced charge build-up in diode interquadrant isolation dielectric, as well as its impact on device interquadrant resistance. Finally, the devices have been characterized with an 8 keV laboratory X-ray source at 10⁸ ph/s and in BL13-XALOC ALBA Synchroton beamline with 10¹¹ ph/s and energies from 6 to 16 keV . Sensitivity, spatial resolution and uniformity of the devices have been evaluated.

In this paper presented the results of the ionizing radiation detector modules, which developed on the basis of a new generation of micropixel avalanche photodiode (MAPD) of MAPD-3NK type. The samples were produced in cooperation with the Zecotek Photonics and characterized by the following parameters: sensitive area—3.7 mm × 3.7 mm, density of pixels—10000 pixels/mm², photon detection efficiency—35–40% (at wavelength of 450–550 nm) and operation voltage—91 V. The beta particle and gamma ray detection performance of MAPD with different single scintillation crystal such as NaI, LFS and p-terphenyl was investigated. The gamma ray detector modules demonstrated a perfect linear behavior of detected signal amplitudes as a function of the gamma ray energy (from 26.3 keV up to 1.33 MeV). Energy resolution for 662 keV gamma rays was 11.2% and the minimum detectable energy was 26.3 keV.

A Gas Proportional Scintillation Counter filled with pure krypton was studied. Energy resolution below 10% for 5.9-keV X-rays was obtained with this prototype. This value is much better than the energy resolution obtained with proportional counters or other MPGDs with krypton filling. The krypton electroluminescence scintillation and ionisation thresholds were found to be about 0.5 and 3.5 kV cm⁻¹bar⁻¹, respectively.

The radiation hardness of Semi-Insulating (SI) GaAs detectors against 5 MeV electrons is investigated in this paper. The influence of two parameters, the accumulative absorbed dose (from 1 to 120 kGy) and the applied dose rate (20, 40 or 80 kGy/h), on detector spectrometric properties was studied. The electron irradiation has negatively affected the detector CCE (Charge Collection Efficiency). Un-irradiated detectors exhibited the CCE of 79% at maximum operating reverse voltage of 300 V and reached the maximum CCE of 51% at 200 V after irradiation by a dose of 120 kGy. Relative energy resolution was also affected by electron irradiation. Its global degradation was observed in the range of doses from 24 up to 120 kGy, where an increase from 19% up to 39% at 200 V reverse voltage was noticed. On the other hand, a global increase of detection efficiency with dose, by about 30% at 120 kGy, was observed with all samples. We did not observe any significant influence of chosen dose rates applied during irradiation on investigated spectrometric properties of detectors.

One of the technical objectives of the MindView project is developing a brain-dedicated PET insert based on monolithic scintillation crystals. It will be inserted in MRI systems with the purpose to obtain simultaneous PET and MRI brain images. High sensitivity, high image quality performance and accurate detection of the Depth-of-Interaction (DoI) of the 511keV photons are required. We have developed a DoI estimation method, dedicated to monolithic scintillators, allowing continuous DoI estimation and a DoI-dependent algorithm for the estimation of the photon planar impact position, able to improve the single module imaging capabilities. In this work, through experimental measurements, the proposed methods have been used for the estimation of the impact positions within the monolithic crystal block. We have evaluated the PET system performance following the NEMA NU 4-2008 protocol by reconstructing the images using the STIR 3D platform. The results obtained with two different methods, providing discrete and continuous DoI information, are compared with those obtained from an algorithm without DoI capabilities and with the ideal response of the detector. The proposed DoI-dependent imaging methods show clear improvements in the spatial resolution (FWHM) of reconstructed images, allowing to obtain values from 2mm (at the center FoV) to 3mm (at the FoV edges).

Due to its electronic properties, a cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) detector has been used as a hand-held portable nuclear measurement instrument. However, a CZT detector has low detection efficiency because of a limitation of its single crystal growth. To address its low efficiency, we have constructed a portable four-CZT array based gamma-ray spectrometer consisting of a CZT array, electronics for signal processing and software. Its performance has been characterized in terms of energy resolution and detection efficiency using radioactive sources and nuclear materials. Experimental results showed that the detection efficiency of the four-CZT array based gamma-ray spectrometer was much higher than that of a single CZT detector in the array. The FWHMs of the CZT array were 9, 18, and 21 keV at 185.7, 662, and 1,332 keV, respectively. Some gamma-rays in a range of 100 keV to 200 keV were not clear in a single crystal detector while those from the CZT array system were observed to be clear. The energy resolution of the CZT array system was only slightely worse than those of the single CZT detectors. By combining several single crystals and summing signals from each single detector at a digital electronic circuit, the detection efficiency of a CZT array system increased without degradation of its energy resolution. The technique outlined in this paper shows a very promising method for designing a CZT-based gamma-ray spectroscopy that overcomes the fundamental limitations of a small volume CZT detector.

Superconducting tunnel junction (STJ) detectors and superconducting transition- edge sensors (TESs) are representative superconductor detectors having energy resolutions much higher than those of semiconductor detectors. STJ detectors are thin, thereby making it suitable for detecting low-energy X rays. The signals of STJ detectors are more than 100 times faster than those of TESs. By contrast, TESs are microcalorimeters that measure the radiation energy from the change in the temperature. Therefore, signals are slow and their time constants are typically several hundreds of μs. However, TESs possess excellent energy resolutions. For example, TESs have a resolution of 1.6 eV for 5.9-keV X rays. An array of STJs or TESs can be used as a pixel detector. Superconducting series-junction detectors (SSJDs) comprise multiple STJs and a single-crystal substrate that acts as a radiation absorber. SSJDs are also position sensitive, and their energy resolutions are higher than those of semiconductor detectors. In this paper, we give an overview of position-sensitive superconductor detectors.

The interest in the use of high resistivity gallium arsenide compensated by chromium (GaAs:Cr) for photon detection has been growing steadily due to its numerous advantages over silicon. At the same time, the prospects of this material as a sensor for pixel detectors in nuclear and high energy physics are much less studied. In this paper we report the results of characterization of the Timepix detectors hybridized with GaAs:Cr sensors of various thickness using synchrotron radiation and various charged particles, including alphas and heavy ions. The energy and spatial resolution have been determined. Interesting features of GaAs:Cr specific to the detector response to an extremely dense energy deposit by heavy ions have been observed for the first time. The long-term stability of the detector has been evaluated based on the measurements performed over one year. Possible limitation of GaAs:Cr as a sensor for high flux X-ray imaging is discussed.

The hybrid particle counting pixel detectors of Medipix family are well known. In this contribution we present new USB 3.0 based interface AdvaDAQ for Timepix3 detector. The AdvaDAQ interface is designed with a maximal emphasis to the flexibility. It is successor of FitPIX interface developed in IEAP CTU in Prague. Its modular architecture supports all Medipix/Timepix chips and all their different readout modes: Medipix2, Timepix (serial and parallel), Medipix3 and Timepix3. The high bandwidth of USB 3.0 permits readout of 1700 full frames per second with Timepix or 8 channel data acquisition from Timepix3 at frequency of 320 MHz. The control and data acquisition is integrated in a multiplatform PiXet software (MS Windows, Mac OS, Linux). In the second part of the publication a new method for correction of the time-walk effect in Timepix3 is described. Moreover, a fully spectroscopic X-ray imaging with Timepix3 detector operated in the ToT mode (Time-over-Threshold) is presented. It is shown that the AdvaDAQ's readout speed is sufficient to perform spectroscopic measurement at full intensity of radiographic setups equipped with nano- or micro-focus X-ray tubes.

The latest version of the MARS small bore scanner makes use of the Medipix3RX ASIC, bonded to a CdTe or CZT semi-conductor layer, to count x-ray photons and create a spectroscopic CT data set. The MARS imaging chain uses the energy-resolved 2D transmission images to construct quantitative 3D spectral and material images. To improve the spectral performance of the imaging system it is important that the energy response of the detector is well calibrated. A common methodology for energy calibration is to use x-ray fluorescence (XRF), due to its effective monochromatic nature. Oblique (off-axis) XRF can be measured in situ in the MARS small bore scanner. A monoatomic foil is placed in front of the x-ray source and off-axis XRF is measured. A key issue is identifying near optimal measurement positions that maximize the XRF signal while minimizing transmitted and scattered x-rays from the primary beam. This work shows the development of a theoretical model that is able to identify where in the detector plane XRF is maximum. We present: (1) a theoretical model that calculates the XRF photon distribution across the detector plane produced from illuminated foils attached to the scanner's filter bar; (2) preliminary experimental measurements of the XRF distribution outside of the main beam taken with a CdTe-Medipix3RX detector; and (3) a comparison between the model and experiment. The main motivation behind creating this model is to identify the region in the detector plane outside of the main beam where XRF is at a maximum. This provides the optimum detector location for measuring a monochromatic XRF source with minimal polychromatic contamination for its use in per-pixel energy calibration of Medipix3RX detectors in MARS scanners.

The HV-CMOS (High Voltage - Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor) pixel technology has recently risen interest for the upgrade of the pixel detector of the ATLAS experiment towards the High Luminosity phase of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) . HV-CMOS sensors can be employed in the pixel outer layers (R >15 cm), where the radiation hardness requirements are less stringent, as they could instrument large areas at a relatively low cost. In addition, smaller pixel granularity can be achieved by exploiting sub-pixel encoding technology. Therefore, the largest impact on physics performance, tracking and flavour tagging, could be reached if exploited in the innermost layer (in place of the current IBL) or in the next-to-innermost layer. This proceeding will present studies on tracking and flavour-tagging performance in presence of HV-CMOS sensors in the innermost layer of the ATLAS detector.

The European X-ray Free Electron Laser (XFEL.EU) will provide unprecedented peak brilliance and ultra-short and spatially coherent X-ray pulses in an energy range of 0.25 to 25 keV . The pulse timing structure is unique with a burst of 2700 pulses of 100 fs length at a temporal distance of 220 ns followed by a 99.4 ms gap. To make optimal use of this timing structure and energy range a great variety of detectors are being developed for use at XFEL.EU, including 2D X-ray imaging cameras that are able to detect images at a rate of 4.5 MHz, provide dynamic ranges up to 10⁵ photons per pulse per pixel under different operating conditions and covering a large range of angular resolution \cite{requirements,Markus}. In order to characterize, commission and calibrate this variety of detectors and for testing of detector prototypes the XFEL.EU detector group is building up an X-ray test laboratory that allows testing of detectors with X-ray photons under conditions that are as similar to the future beam line conditions at the XFEL.EU as is possible with laboratory sources [1]. A total of four test environments provide the infrastructure for detector tests and calibration: two portable setups that utilize low power X-ray sources and radioactive isotopes, a test environment where a commercial high power X-ray generator is in use, and a pulsed X-ray/electron source which will provide pulses as short as 25 ns in XFEL.EU burst mode combined with target anodes of different materials. The status of the test environments, three of which are already in use while one is in commissioning phase, will be presented as well as first results from performance tests and characterization of the sources.

We have developed a fine-pitch glass gas electron multiplier (G-GEM) for high-resolution X-ray imaging. The fine-pitch G-GEM is made of a 400 μm thick photo-etchable glass substrate with 150 μm pitch holes. It is fabricated using the same wet etching technique as that for the standard G-GEM. In this work, we present the experimental results obtained with a single fine-pitch G-GEM with a 50 × 50 mm² effective area. We recorded an energy resolution of 16.2% and gas gain up to 5,500 when the detector was irradiated with 5.9 keV X-rays. We present a 50 × 50 mm² X-ray radiograph image acquired with a scintillation gas and optical readout system.

Diamond is a promising material whose excellent physical properties foster its use for radiation detection applications, in particular in those hostile operating environments where the silicon-based detectors behavior is limited due to the high radiation fluence. Within this framework, the application of Technology Computer Aided Design (TCAD) simulation tools is highly envisaged for the study, the optimization and the predictive analysis of sensing devices. Since the novelty of using diamond in electronics, this material is not included in the library of commercial, state-of-the-art TCAD software tools. In this work, we propose the development, the application and the validation of numerical models to simulate the electrical behavior of polycrystalline (pc)CVD diamond conceived for diamond sensors for particle detection. The model focuses on the characterization of a physically-based pcCVD diamond bandgap taking into account deep-level defects acting as recombination centers and/or trap states. While a definite picture of the polycrystalline diamond band-gap is still debated, the effect of the main parameters (e.g. trap densities, capture cross-sections, etc.) can be deeply investigated thanks to the simulated approach. The charge collection efficiency due to β -particle irradiation of diamond materials provided by different vendors and with different electrode configurations has been selected as figure of merit for the model validation. The good agreement between measurements and simulation findings, keeping the traps density as the only one fitting parameter, assesses the suitability of the TCAD modeling approach as a predictive tool for the design and the optimization of diamond-based radiation detectors.

The first Inverse Low Gain Avalanche Detector (iLGAD) have been fabricated at IMB-CNM (CSIC). The iLGAD structure includes the multiplication diffusions at the ohmic contact side while the segmentation is implemented at the front side with multiple p⁺ diffusions. Therefore, iLGAD is p on p position-sensitive detector with a uniform electric field all along the device area that guarantees the same signal amplification wherever a particle passes through the sensitive bulk solving the main draw of the LGAD microstrip detector. However, the detection current is dominated by holes flowing back from the multiplication junction with the subsequent increase of the transient current pulse duration in comparison with conventional LGAD counterparts. Applications of iLGAD range from tracking and timing applications, like determination of primary interaction vertex, to medical imaging. The paper addresses the optimization of the iLGAD structure with the aid of TCAD simulations, focusing on the electric field profiles of iLGAD and LGAD microstrip structures and the corresponding gain. The electrical performance of the first fabricated samples is also provided. For the first time, we have the experimental demonstration of the signal amplification of these novel iLGAD detectors.

In recent years phase-contrast has become a much investigated modality in radiographic imaging. The radiographic setups employed in phase-contrast imaging are typically rather costly and complex, e.g. high performance Talbot-Laue interferometers operated at synchrotron light sources. In-line phase-contrast imaging states the most pedestrian approach towards phase-contrast enhancement. Utilizing small angle deflection within the imaged sample and the entailed interference of the deflected and un-deflected beam during spatial propagation, in-line phase-contrast imaging only requires a well collimated X-ray source with a high contrast & high resolution detector. Employing high magnification the above conditions are intrinsically fulfilled in cone-beam micro-tomography. As opposed of 2D imaging, where contrast enhancement is generally considered beneficial, in tomographic modalities the in-line phase-contrast effect can be quite a nuisance since it renders the inverse problem posed by tomographic reconstruction inconsistent, thus causing reconstruction artifacts. We present an experimentally enhanced model-based approach to disentangle absorption and in-line phase-contrast. The approach employs comparison of transmission data to a system model computed iteratively on-line. By comparison of the forward model to absorption data acquired in continuous rotation strong local deviations of the data residual are successively identified as likely candidates for in-line phase-contrast. By inducing minimal vibrations (few mrad) to the sample around the peaks of such deviations the transmission signal can be decomposed into a constant absorptive fraction and an oscillating signal caused by phase-contrast which again allows to generate separate maps for absorption and phase-contrast. The contributions of phase-contrast and the corresponding artifacts are subsequently removed from the tomographic dataset. In principle, if a 3D handling of the sample is available, this method also allows to track discontinuities throughout the volume and therefore states a powerful tool in 3D defectoscopy.

Among the different techniques available, the SiPM power supply described in this paper uses output voltage and sensor temperature feedback. A high-resolution ADC digitizes both the output voltage and an analog signal proportional to the SiPM temperature for each of its 16 independent outputs. The appropriate change in the bias voltage is computed in a micro-controller and this correction is applied via a high resolution DAC to the control input of a DC/DC module that produces the output voltage. This method allows a reduction in gain variations from typically 30% to only 0.5% in a 10 °C range. The power supply is housed in a 3U-height aluminum box. A 2.8'' touch screen on the front panel provides local access to the configuration and monitoring functions using a graphical interface. The unit has an Ethernet interface on its rear side to provide remote operation and integration in slow control systems using the encrypted and secure SSH protocol. A LabVIEW application with SSH interface has been designed to operate the power supply from a remote computer. The power supply has good characteristics, such as 85 V output range with 1 mV resolution and stability better than 2 mV_P, excellent output load regulation and programmable rise and fall voltage ramps. Commercial power supplies from well-known manufacturers can show far better specifications though can also result in an over featured and over costly solution for typical applications.

Recent advances in Traveling Heater Method (THM) growth and device fabrication that require additional processing steps have enabled to dramatically improve hole transport properties and reduce polarization effects in Cadmium Zinc Telluride (CZT) material. As a result high flux operation of CZT sensors at rates in excess of 200 Mcps/mm² is now possible and has enabled multiple medical imaging companies to start building prototype Computed Tomography (CT) scanners. CZT sensors are also finding new commercial applications in non-destructive testing (NDT) and baggage scanning. In order to prepare for high volume commercial production we are moving from individual tile processing to whole wafer processing using silicon methodologies, such as waxless processing, cassette based/touchless wafer handling. We have been developing parametric level screening at the wafer stage to ensure high wafer quality before detector fabrication in order to maximize production yields. These process improvements enable us, and other CZT manufacturers who pursue similar developments, to provide high volume production for photon counting applications in an economically feasible manner. CZT sensors are capable of delivering both high count rates and high-resolution spectroscopic performance, although it is challenging to achieve both of these attributes simultaneously. The paper discusses material challenges, detector design trade-offs and ASIC architectures required to build cost-effective CZT based detection systems. Photon counting ASICs are essential part of the integrated module platforms as charge-sensitive electronics needs to deal with charge-sharing and pile-up effects.

In this work we show pilot tests of PET detector blocks using the TOF-PET ASIC, coupled to SiPM detector arrays and different crystal configurations. We have characterized the main ASIC features running calibration processes to compensate the time dispersion among the different ASIC/SiPM paths as well as for the time walk on the arrival of optical photons. The aim of this work is to use of LYSO monolithic crystals and explore their photon Depth of Interaction (DOI) capabilities, keeping good energy and spatial resolutions. First tests have been carried out with crystal arrays. Here we made it possible to reach a coincidence resolving times (CRT) of 370 ps FWHM, with energy resolutions better than 20% and resolving well 2 mm sized crystal elements. When using monolithic crystals, a single-pixel LYSO reference crystal helped to explore the CRT performance. We studied different strategies to provide the best timestamp determination in the monolithic scintillator. Times around 1 ns FWHM have been achieved in these pilot studies. In terms of spatial and energy resolution, values of about 3 mm and better than 30% were found, respectively. We have also demonstrated the capability of this system (monolithic and ASIC) to return accurate DOI information.

The PERCIVAL soft X-ray imager is being developed by DESY, RAL, Elettra, DLS, and PAL to address the challenges at high brilliance Light Sources such as new-generation Synchrotrons and Free Electron Lasers. Typical requirements for detector systems at these sources are high frame rates, large dynamic range, single-photon counting capability with low probability of false positives, high quantum efficiency, and (multi)-mega-pixel arrangements. PERCIVAL is a monolithic active pixel sensor, based on CMOS technology. It is designed for the soft X-ray regime and, therefore, it is post-processed in order to achieve high quantum efficiency in its primary energy range (250 eV to 1 keV) . This work will report on the latest experimental results on charge collection efficiency obtained for multiple back-side-illuminated test sensors during two campaigns, at the P04 beam-line at PETRA III, and the CiPo beam-line at Elettra, spanning most of the primary energy range as well as testing the performance for photon-energies below 250 eV . In addition, XPS surface analysis was used to cross-check the obtained results.

Patterned pixel array was proposed to increase the number of energy bins in a single pixel of photon counting detectors without adding more comparators and counters. The pixels were grouped into four different types and each pixel has a common threshold and a specific threshold assigned to each pixel type. The common threshold in every pixel records the total number of incident photons regardless of its pixel type and the specific thresholds classify incident photon energies. The patterned pixel array was evaluated with the pinhole gamma camera system based on the XRI-UNO detector flip-chip bonded with a 1mm thick CdTe sensor. The experimental data was acquired with time-over-threshold mode to avoid the charge sharing problem. The shared total charges created by one photon can be found by summing all pixels within the cluster. To correct the different response to the same energy of photon, the energy calibration of the time-over-threshold value was perfomed independently depending on the cluster size. The time-over-threshold values were separated into two energy bins since we assumed that each pixel has two thresholds. Although each pixel has only two thresholds, five images from different energy windows were obtained by sharing the spectal information from four adjacent pixels. Thus, degradation of the spatial resolution in the image occured in each energy window. The image of the entire energy, however, was not degraded since all four different types of pixels have a common threshold just above the noise level. In addition, the number of steps for the threshold scan method can be drastically reduced with the increased number of effective thresholds in a single pixel.

Proton beam radiotherapy is highly effective in treating cancer thanks to its conformal dose deposition. This superior capability in dose deposition has led to a massive growth of the treated patients around the world, raising the need of treatment monitoring systems. An in-treatment PET system, DoPET, was constructed and tested at CATANA beam-line, LNS-INFN in Catania, where 62 MeV protons are used to treat ocular melanoma. The PET technique profits from the beta+ emitters generated by the proton beam in the irradiated body, mainly 15-O and 11-C. The current DoPET prototype consists of two planar 15 cm × 15 cm LYSO-based detector heads. With respect to the previous versions, the system was enlarged and the DAQ up-graded during the years so now also anthropomorphic phantoms, can be fitted within the field of view of the system. To demonstrate the capability of DoPET to detect changes in the delivered treatment plan with respect to the planned one, various treatment plans were used delivering a standard 15 Gy fraction to an anthropomorphic phantom. Data were acquired during and after the treatment delivery up to 10 minutes. When the in-treatment phase was long enough (more than 1 minute), the corresponding activated volume was visible just after the treatment delivery, even if in presence of a noisy background. The after-treatment data, acquired for about 9 minutes, were segmented finding that few minutes are enough to be able to detect changes. These experiments will be presented together with the studies performed with PMMA phantoms where the DoPET response was characterized in terms of different dose rates and in presence of range shifters: the system response is linear up to 16.9 Gy/min and has the ability to see a 1 millimeter range shifter.

In this work we present the development and the application of a new TCAD modelling scheme to simulate the effects of radiation damage on silicon radiation detectors at the very high fluence levels expected at High Luminosity LHC (up to 2 × 10¹⁶ 1MeV n/cm²). In particular, we propose a combined approach for the analysis of the surface effects (oxide charge build-up and interface trap states introduction) as well as bulk effects (deep level traps and/or recombination centers introduction). Experimental measurements have been carried out aiming at: i) extraction from simple test structures of relevant parameters to be included within the TCAD model and ii) validation of the new modelling scheme through comparison with measurements of different test structures (e.g. different technologies) before and after irradiation. The good agreements between experimental measurements and simulation findings foster the suitability of the TCAD modelling approach as a predictive tool for investigating the radiation detector behavior at different fluences and operating conditions. This would allow the design and optimization of innovative 3D and planar silicon detectors for future HL-LHC High Energy Physics experiments.

We present ERICA (Energy Resolving Inline X-ray Camera) a photon-counting readout ASIC, with 6 energy bins. The ASIC is composed of a matrix of 8 × 20 pixels controlled by a global digital controller and biased with 7 independent digital to analog converters (DACs) and a band-gap current reference. The pixel analog front-end includes a charge sensitive amplifier with 16 mV/ke⁻ gain and dynamic range of 45 ke⁻. ERICA has programmable pulse width, an adjustable constant current feedback resistor, a linear test pulse generator, and six discriminators with 6-bit local threshold adjustment. The pixel digital back-end includes the digital controller, 8 counters of 8-bit depth, half-full buffer flag for any of the 8 counters, a 74-bit shadow/shift register, a 74-bit configuration latch, and charge sharing compensation processing to perform the energy classification and counting operations of every detected photon in 1 μ s. The pixel size is 330 μm × 330 μm and its average consumption is 150 μW. Implemented in TSMC 0.25 μm CMOS process, the ASIC pixel's equivalent noise charge (ENC) is 90 e⁻ RMS connected to a 1 mm thickness matching CdTe detector biased at −300 V with a total leakage current of 20 nA.

Using a suitable isotope such as ⁶Li and ¹⁰B semiconductor hybrid pixel detectors can be successfully adapted for position sensitive detection of thermal and cold neutrons via conversion into energetic light ions. The adapted devices then typically provides spatial resolution at the level comparable to the pixel pitch (55 μm) and sensitive area of about few cm². In this contribution, we describe further progress in neutron imaging performance based on the development of a large-area hybrid pixel detector providing practically continuous neutron sensitive area of 71 × 57 mm². The measurements characterising the detector performance at the cold neutron imaging instrument ICON at PSI and high-flux imaging beam-line Neutrograph at ILL are presented. At both facilities, high-resolution high-contrast neutron radiography with the newly developed detector has been successfully applied for objects which imaging were previously difficult with hybrid pixel technology (such as various composite materials, objects of cultural heritage etc.). Further, a significant improvement in the spatial resolution of neutron radiography with hybrid semiconductor pixel detector based on the fast read-out Timepix-based detector is presented. The system is equipped with a thin planar ⁶LiF convertor operated effectively in the event-by-event mode enabling position sensitive detection with spatial resolution better than 10 μm.

X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) is a commonly used technique for non-destructive elemental analysis of cultural heritage objects. It can be applied to investigations of provenance of historical objects as well as to studies of art techniques. While the XRF analysis can be easily performed locally using standard available equipment there is a growing interest in imaging of spatial distribution of specific elements. Spatial imaging of elemental distrbutions is usually realised by scanning an object with a narrow focused X-ray excitation beam and measuring characteristic fluorescence radiation using a high energy resolution detector, usually a silicon drift detector. Such a technique, called macro-XRF imaging, is suitable for investigation of flat surfaces but it is time consuming because the spatial resolution is basically determined by the spot size of the beam. Another approach is the full-field XRF, which is based on simultaneous irradiation and imaging of large area of an object. The image of the investigated area is projected by a pinhole camera on a position-sensitive and energy dispersive detector. The infinite depth of field of the pinhole camera allows one, in principle, investigation of non-flat surfaces. One of possible detectors to be employed in full-field XRF imaging is a GEM based detector with 2-dimensional readout. In the paper we report on development of an imaging system equipped with a standard 3-stage GEM detector of 10 × 10 cm² equipped with readout electronics based on dedicated full-custom ASICs and DAQ system. With a demonstrator system we have obtained 2-D spatial resolution of the order of 100 μm and energy resolution at a level of 20% FWHM for 5.9 keV . Limitations of such a detector due to copper fluorescence radiation excited in the copper-clad drift electrode and GEM foils is discussed and performance of the detector using chromium-clad electrodes is reported.

Active sandwich-like multilayer detectors have been developed, and their potential for motion-artifact-free dual-energy x-ray imaging at a single exposure has been demonstrated in the material decomposition context. Since the sandwich detector uses the x-ray beam transmittance through the front layer, direct x-ray interaction within photodiodes in the front layer is unavoidable, and which can increase noise in the front detector images. Similar direct x-ray interaction can also occur in the rear detector layer. To obtain a better contrast performance, an additional filter layer can be placed between the two detector layers. However, this filter layer can increase adversely noise in images obtained from the rear detector layer by reducing the number of x-ray photons reaching it. A theoretical model, which can describe the signal-to-noise performance of the sandwich detector as functions of various design parameters, has been developed by using a linear cascaded-systems theory. From the cascaded-systems analysis, the direct x-ray interaction increases noise at the high spatial frequencies where the number of secondary quanta lessens. The intermediate filter layer enhances the contribution of additive electronic noise in the overall noise performance of the rear detector layer. The detailed cascaded-systems analysis on the x-ray sandwich detectors are reported in comparisons with the measured noise-power spectra and detective quantum efficiencies. The developed model will be useful for a better design and practical use of a sandwich detector for single-shot dual-energy imaging.

The Iranian Light Source Facility (ILSF) is a new 3 GeV third generation synchrotron radiation facility in Middle East, which at the time being is in its design stage. An important aspect for the scientific success of this new source will be the availability of well adapted detectors. Position-sensitive X-ray detectors have played an important role in synchrotron radiation X-ray experiments for many years and are still in use. An operational one-dimensional multiwire position sensitive detector with delay line readout produced by ILSF showed a position resolution of 230 μm. In this paper, we introduce a 2-D position sensitive gas detector based on a multiwire proportional chamber which will be used in small/wide angle scattering and diffraction experiments with synchrotron radiation at the ILSF. The parameters of its components, including the gas filling, gas pressure, temperature, the geometry of anode and cathodes planes as well as the expected performance of the designed system will be described in the following. For the design and the simulation of MWPC the Elmer and Garfield++ codes have been employed. We have built and tested a MWPC as a prototype at ILSF. The results obtained so far show a good position sensing. After primary test the detector has been optimized and is now ready for test at Elettra.

This work presents the first characterization results obtained on a pilot fabrication run of planar sensors, tailored for X-ray imaging applications at FELs, developed in the framework of INFN project PixFEL. Active and slim-edge p-on-n sensors are fabricated on n-type high-resistivity silicon with 450 μm thickness, bonded to a support wafer. Both diodes and pixelated sensors with a pitch of 110 μm are included in the design. Edge structures with different number of guard rings are designed to comply with the large bias voltage required by the application after accumulating an ionizing radiation dose as large as 1GGy. Preliminary results from the electrical characterization of the produced sensors, providing a first assessment of the proposed approach, are discussed. A functional characterization of the sensors with a pulsed infrared laser is also presented, demonstrating the validity of slim-edge configurations.

The Voxel Imaging PET (VIP) project presents a new approach for the design of nuclear medicine imaging devices by using highly segmented pixel CdTe sensors. CdTe detectors can achieve an energy resolution of ≈ 1% FWHM at 511 keV and can be easily segmented into submillimeter sized voxels for optimal spatial resolution. These features help in rejecting a large part of the scattered events from the PET coincidence sample in order to obtain high quality images. Another contribution to the background are random events, i.e., hits caused by two independent gammas without a common origin. Given that 60% of 511 keV photons undergo Compton scattering in CdTe (i.e. 84% of all coincidence events have at least one Compton scattering gamma), we present a simulation study on the possibility to use the Compton scattering information of at least one of the coincident gammas within the detector to reject random coincidences. The idea uses the fact that if a gamma undergoes Compton scattering in the detector, it will cause two hits in the pixel detectors. The first hit corresponds to the Compton scattering process. The second hit shall correspond to the photoelectric absorption of the remaining energy of the gamma. With the energy deposition of the first hit, one can calculate the Compton scattering angle. By measuring the hit location of the coincident gamma, we can construct the geometric angle, under the assumption that both gammas come from the same origin. Using the difference between the Compton scattering angle and the geometric angle, random events can be rejected.

The novel proton radiography imaging technique has a large potential to be used in direct measurement of the proton energy loss (proton stopping power, PSP) in various tissues in the patient. The uncertainty of PSPs, currently obtained from translation of X-ray Computed Tomography (xCT) images, should be minimized from 3–5% or higher to less than 1%, to make the treatment plan with proton beams more accurate, and thereby better treatment for the patient. With Geant4 we simulated a proton radiography detection system with two position-sensitive and residual energy detectors. A complex phantom filled with various materials (including tissue surrogates), was placed between the position sensitive detectors. The phantom was irradiated with 150 MeV protons and the energy loss radiograph and scattering angles were studied. Protons passing through different materials in the phantom lose energy, which was used to create a radiography image of the phantom. The multiple Coulomb scattering of a proton traversing different materials causes blurring of the image. To improve image quality and material identification in the phantom, we selected protons with small scattering angles. A good quality proton radiography image, in which various materials can be recognized accurately, and in combination with xCT can lead to more accurate relative stopping powers predictions.

Thanks to the ultra-fast endstation of the TOMCAT beamline, it is possible to do a tomographic scan with a sub-second temporal resolution which allows following dynamic processes in 4D (3D space + time). This ultra- high-rate tomography acquisition, exploiting the distinctive peculiarities of synchrotron radiation, provides nondestructive investigation of many dynamic processes which were not possible in the past. For example a continuous tensile test has been conducted recently in-situ for the first time with a frequency of 20 tomograms per second (20 Hz acquisition frequency). In the ultra-fast endstation a scintillator is used to convert X-ray to visible photons that can be detected by the camera. However, this conversion is not ideal and the scintillator response decays exponentially with afterglow. Afterglow can cause resolution degradation and artifacts (such as ring and band) especially with high rotation speed. On the other hand, to achieve a higher scan speed, thicker scintillators are more common because they result in higher emission intensities that can compensate the short exposure time in fast scans. However, the resolution deteriorates as the scintillator's thickness increases and thicker scintillators show higher afterglow. Performing many ultra-fast scans at the TOMCAT beamline with different acquisition rate, we demonstrate how the exposure time effects on the projection data and reconstructed images. Using two different thicknesses of LAG scintillator we also investigate the afterglow artifacts for different acquisition rate and exposure time.

Quality assessment of particle therapy treatments by means of PET systems has been carried out since late `90 and it is one of the most promising in-vivo non invasive monitoring techniques employed clinically. It can be performed with a diagnostic PET scanners installed outside the treatment room (off-line monitoring) or inside the treatment room (in-room monitoring). However the most efficient way is by integrating a PET scanner with the treatment delivery system (on-line monitoring) so that the biological wash out and the patient repositioning errors are minimized. In this work we present the performance of the in-beam PET scanner developed within the INSIDE project. The INSIDE PET scanner is made of two planar heads, 10 cm wide (transaxially) and 25 cm long (axially), composed of pixellated LFS crystals coupled to Hamamatsu MPPCs. Custom designed Front-End Electronics (FE) and Data AcQuisition (DAQ) systems allow an on-line reconstruction of PET images from separated in-spill and inter-spill data sets. The INSIDE PET scanner has been recently delivered at the CNAO (Pavia, Italy) hadrontherapy facility and the first experimental measurements have been carried out. Homogeneous PMMA phantoms and PMMA phantoms with small air and bone inserts were irradiated with monoenergetic clinical proton beams. The activity range was evaluated at various benchmark positions within the field of view to assess the homogeneity of response of the PET system. Repeated irradiations of PMMA phantoms with clinical spread out Bragg peak proton beams were performed to evaluate the reproducibility of the PET signal. The results found in this work show that the response of the INSIDE PET scanner is independent of the position within the radiation field. Results also show the capability of the INSIDE PET scanner to distinguish variations of the activity range due to small tissue inhomogeneities. Finally, the reproducibility of the activity range measurement was within 1 mm.

We report on a large field of view, laboratory-based X-ray phase-contrast imaging setup. The method is based upon the asymmetric mask design that enables the retrieval of the absorption, refraction and scattering properties of the sample without the need to move any component of the imaging system. This can be thought of as a periodic repetition of a group of three (or more) apertures arranged in such a way that each laminar beam, defined by the apertures, produces a different illumination level when analysed with a standard periodic set of apertures. The sample is scanned through the imaging system, also removing possible aliasing problems that might arise from partial sample illumination when using the edge illumination technique. This approach preserves the incoherence and achromatic properties of edge illumination, removes the problems related to aliasing and it naturally adapts to those situations in clinical, industrial and security imaging where the image is acquired by scanning the sample relative to the imaging system. These concepts were implemented for a large field-of-view set of masks (20 cm × 1.5 cm and 15 cm × 1.2 cm), designed to work with a tungsten anode X-ray source operated up to 80–100 kVp, from which preliminary experimental results are presented.

In view of the High Luminosity upgrade of the Large Hadron Collider (HL-LHC), planned to start around 2023–2025, the ATLAS experiment will undergo a replacement of the Inner Detector. A higher luminosity will imply higher irradiation levels and hence will demand more radiation hardness especially in the inner layers of the pixel system. The n-in-p silicon technology is a promising candidate to instrument this region, also thanks to its cost-effectiveness because it only requires a single sided processing in contrast to the n-in-n pixel technology presently employed in the LHC experiments. In addition, thin sensors were found to ensure radiation hardness at high fluences. An overview is given of recent results obtained with not irradiated and irradiated n-in-p planar pixel modules. The focus will be on n-in-p planar pixel sensors with an active thickness of 100 and 150 μm recently produced at ADVACAM. To maximize the active area of the sensors, slim and active edges are implemented. The performance of these modules is investigated at beam tests and the results on edge efficiency will be shown.

A rotating modulation collimator (RMC) is a useful technique for sensing remote radiation sources. Recently, Kowash and his colleagues presented an image reconstruction algorithm to detect mid-range point sources with the RMC. However, their algorithm tends to produce undesirable artifacts in the reconstructed images. In this paper, we propose an improved image reconstruction algorithm using a regularization method. Our algorithm reduces the artifacts by increasing the sparsity during the reconstruction. We demonstrate the proposed algorithm on simulation data from RMC system model and MCNP data.

Fast neutron detectors with an active area of 80 mm² based on surface-barrier VPE GaAs structures were fabricated and tested. Polyethylene with density of 0.90 g/cm³ was used as a converter layer. The recoil-proton surface-barrier sensor was fabricated on high purity VPE GaAs epilayers with a thickness of 50 μm. The neutron detection efficiency measured with a ²⁴¹Am-Be source was 1.30 · 10⁻³ puls./neutr. for the PE converter thickness of 670 μm. The signal-to-gamma-background ratio was at the level of 50. Simulation of the detector characteristics with Geant4 toolkit has showed good correlation with the experimental data and allowed to estimate the maximal theoretical detection efficiency of the detector which is determined by the PE converter and equals to 1.37 · 10⁻³ puls./neutr. The difference between the measured and simulated values of the detection efficiency is due to the fact that the events with energies below 0.5 MeV were not taken into account during the measurements.

We have examined semi-insulating (SI) GaAs detectors with high density polyethylene (HDPE) conversion layer by a mono-energetic neutrons with kinetic energy of 16.755 MeV generated by a deuterium—tritium nuclear reaction. First, the influence of HDPE layer thickness on the relative detection efficiency of fast neutrons was studied. The MCNPX (Monte Carlo N-particle eXtended) code has been used to support the analysis of the experiment. The theoretical optimum thickness of the conversion layer was determined to 1.9 mm using the MCNPX code. The HDPE conversion layers of various thicknesses, in the range from 50 μ m to 3200 μ m, were glued on the top Schottky contact of SI GaAs detector in the experiment. The neutron detection efficiency was evaluated from measured spectra and compared to results from simulations. The experimental data showed very good agreement with simulation results. Then the effect of active detector thickness modified by detector reverse bias on neutron detection efficiency was studied. Finally, the effect of the angle of irradiation on neutron detection efficiency was evaluated exhibiting decreasing tendency with increasing deviation from perpendicular direction of impinging neutrons.

The author presents considerations on the design of fast readout front-end electronics implemented in a CMOS 40 nm technology with an emphasis on the system dead time, noise performance and power dissipation. The designed processing channel consists of a charge sensitive amplifier with different feedback types (Krummenacher, resistive and constant current blocks), a threshold setting block, a discriminator and a counter with logic circuitry. The results of schematic and post-layout simulations with randomly generated input pulses in a time domain according to the Poisson distribution are presented and analyzed. Dead time below 20 ns is possible while keeping noise ENC ≈ 90 e⁻ for a detector capacitance C_DET = 160 fF.

The ATLAS New Small Wheels will be the first major upgrade to an LHC experiment utilizing the Micromegas technology. With an active detection area of 1280 m² and comprising more than two million channels it is the largest and probably most ambitious system of Micro Pattern Gaseous Detectors (MPGDs) currently under construction. The eponymous component of the Micromegas technology, the micromesh, is the detector's most precise component. Although a wide range of meshes, mesh geometries and parameters can be used to build an operational Micromegas, its properties can affect a range of detector qualities, such as reconstruction efficiency, timing and energy resolution. Conversely, the correct choice of this component will permit a wider range in operation parameters and optimize the detector performance.

A multilayer stacked X-ray camera concept is described. This type of technology is called `4H' X-ray cameras, where 4H stands for high-Z (Z>30) sensor, high-resolution (less than 300 micron pixel pitch), high-speed (above 100 MHz), and high-energy (above 30 keV in photon energy). The components of the technology, similar to the popular two-dimensional (2D) hybrid pixelated array detectors, consists of GaAs:Cr sensors bonded to high-speed ASICs. 4H cameras based on GaAs also use integration mode of X-ray detection. The number of layers, on the order of ten, is smaller than an earlier configuration for single-photon-counting (SPC) mode of detection [1]. High-speed ASIC based on modification to the ePix family of ASIC is discussed. Applications in X-ray free electron lasers (XFELs), synchrotrons, medicine and non-destructive testing are possible.

The presented work is related to the Gas Electron Multiplier (GEM) detector soft X-ray spectroscopy system for tokamak applications. The used GEM detector has one-dimensional, 128 channel readout structure. The channels are connected to the radiation-hard electronics with configurable analog stage and fast ADCs, supporting speeds of 125 MSPS for each channel. The digitalized data is sent directly to the FPGAs using fast serial links. The preprocessing algorithms are implemented in the FPGAs, with the data buffering made in the on-board 2Gb DDR3 memory chips. After the algorithmic stage, the data is sent to the Intel Xeon-based PC for further postprocessing using PCI-Express link Gen 2. For connection of multiple FPGAs, PCI-Express switch 8-to-1 was designed. The whole system can support up to 2048 analog channels. The scope of the work is an FPGA-based implementation of the recorder of the raw signal from GEM detector. Since the system will work in a very challenging environment (neutron radiation, intense electro-magnetic fields), the registered signals from the GEM detector can be corrupted. In the case of the very intense hot plasma radiation (e.g. laser generated plasma), the registered signals can overlap. Therefore, it is valuable to register the raw signals from the GEM detector with high number of events during soft X-ray radiation. The signal analysis will have the direct impact on the implementation of photon energy computation algorithms. As the result, the system will produce energy spectra and topological distribution of soft X-ray radiation. The advanced software was developed in order to perform complex system startup and monitoring of hardware units. Using the array of two one-dimensional GEM detectors it will be possible to perform tomographic reconstruction of plasma impurities radiation in the SXR region.

In Low Earth Orbit (LEO) in space electronic equipment aboard satellites and space crews are exposed to high ionizing radiation levels. To reduce radiation damage and the exposure of astronauts, to improve shielding and to assess dose levels, it is valuable to know the composition of the radiation fields and particle directions. The presented measurements are carried out with the Space Application of Timepix Radiation Monitor (SATRAM). There, a Timepix detector (300 μm thick silicon sensor, pixel pitch 55 μm, 256 × 256 pixels) is attached to the Proba-V, an earth observing satellite of the European Space Agency (ESA). The Timepix detector's capability was used to determine the directions of energetic charged particles and their corresponding stopping powers. Data are continuously taken at an altitude of 820 km on a sun-synchronous orbit. The particles pitch angles with respect to the sensor layer were measured and converted to an Earth Centred Earth Fixed (ECEF) coordinate system. Deviations from an isotropic field are extracted by normalization of the observed angular distributions by a Geant4 Monte Carlo simulation —taking the systematics of the reconstruction algorithm and the pixelation into account.

In this work we have focused on detection of thermal neutrons generated by ²³⁹Pu–Be isotopic neutron source. A high quality liquid phase epitaxial layer of 4H-SiC was used as a detection region. The thickness of the layer was 70 μ m and the diameter of circular Au/Ni Schottky contact was 4.5 mm. Around the Schottky contact two guard rings were created. The detector structure was first examined as a detector of protons and alpha particles for energy calibration. Monoenergetic protons of energies from 300 keV up to 1.9 MeV were used for detector energy calibration and a good linearity was observed. The energy resolution of 35 keV was obtained for 1.9 MeV protons. The ⁶LiF conversion layer was applied on the detector Schottky contact. In the experiment we used different thicknesses of conversion layers from 5 μ m up to 35 μ m. Measured detected spectra show two parts corresponding to alpha particles detection in lower energy channels and ³H in higher energy channels. We have also performed simulations of thermal neutron detection using MCNPX (Monte Carlo N-particle eXtended) code. The detection efficiency and the detector response to thermal neutrons was calculated with respect to the ⁶LiF layer thickness. The detection efficiency calculation is found to be in good agreement with the experiment.

For the purpose of designing an x-ray detector system for cargo container inspection, we have investigated the energy-absorption signal and noise in CdWO₄ detectors for megavoltage x-ray photons. We describe the signal and noise measures, such as quantum efficiency, average energy absorption, Swank noise factor, and detective quantum efficiency (DQE), in terms of energy moments of absorbed energy distributions (AEDs) in a detector. The AED is determined by using a Monte Carlo simulation. The results show that the signal-related measures increase with detector thickness. However, the improvement of Swank noise factor with increasing thickness is weak, and this energy-absorption noise characteristic dominates the DQE performance. The energy-absorption noise mainly limits the signal-to-noise performance of CdWO₄ detectors operated at megavoltage x-ray beam.

The PERCIVAL (Pixelated Energy Resolving CMOS Imager, Versatile And Large) soft X-ray 2D imaging detector is based on stitched, wafer-scale sensors possessing a thick epi-layer, which together with back-thinning and back-side illumination yields elevated quantum efficiency in the photon energy range of 125–1000 eV. Main application fields of PERCIVAL are foreseen in photon science with FELs and synchrotron radiation. This requires high dynamic range up to 10⁵ ph @ 250 eV paired with single photon sensitivity with high confidence at moderate frame rates in the range of 10–120 Hz. These figures imply the availability of dynamic gain switching on a pixel-by-pixel basis and a highly parallel, low noise analog and digital readout, which has been realized in the PERCIVAL sensor layout. Different aspects of the detector performance have been assessed using prototype sensors with different pixel and ADC types. This work will report on the recent test results performed on the newest chip prototypes with the improved pixel and ADC architecture. For the target frame rates in the 10–120 Hz range an average noise floor of 14e⁻ has been determined, indicating the ability of detecting single photons with energies above 250 eV. Owing to the successfully implemented adaptive 3-stage multiple-gain switching, the integrated charge level exceeds 4 · 10⁶ e⁻ or 57000 X-ray photons at 250 eV per frame at 120 Hz. For all gains the noise level remains below the Poisson limit also in high-flux conditions. Additionally, a short overview over the updates on an oncoming 2 Mpixel (P2M) detector system (expected at the end of 2016) will be reported.

AGIPD (adaptive gain integrating pixel detector) is a detector system developed for the European XFEL (XFEL.EU), which is currently being constructed in Hamburg, Germany. The XFEL.EU will operate with bunch trains at a repetition rate of 10 Hz. Each train consists of 2700 bunches with a temporal separation of 220 ns corresponding to a rate of 4.5 MHz. Each photon pulse has a duration of < 100 fs (rms) and contains up to 10¹² photons in an energy range between 0.25 and 25 keV . In order to cope with the large dynamic range, the first stage of each bump-bonded AGIPD ASIC is a charge sensitive preamplifier with three different gain settings that are dynamically switched during the charge integration. Dynamic gain switching allows single photon resolution in the high gain stage and can cover a dynamic range of 10⁴ × 12.4 keV photons in the low gain stage. The burst structure of the bunch trains forces to have an intermediate in-pixel storage of the signals. The full scale chip has 352 in-pixel storage cells inside the pixel area of 200 × 200 μm². This contribution will report on the measurements done with the new calibration circuitry of the AGIPD1.1 chip (without sensor). These results will be compared with the old version of the chip (AGIPD1.0). A new calibration method (that is not AGIPD specific) will also be shown.

Each front-end readout ASIC for the High-Energy Physics experiments requires robust and effective hit data streaming and control mechanism. A new STS-XYTER2 full-size prototype chip for the Silicon Tracking System and Muon Chamber detectors in the Compressed Baryonic Matter experiment at Facility for Antiproton and Ion Research (FAIR, Germany) is a 128-channel time and amplitude measuring solution for silicon microstrip and gas detectors. It operates at 250 kHit/s/channel hit rate, each hit producing 27 bits of information (5-bit amplitude, 14-bit timestamp, position and diagnostics data). The chip back-end implements fast front-end channel read-out, timestamp-wise hit sorting, and data streaming via a scalable interface implementing the dedicated protocol (STS-HCTSP) for chip control and hit transfer with data bandwidth from 9.7 MHit/s up to 47 MHit/s. It also includes multiple options for link diagnostics, failure detection, and throttling features. The back-end is designed to operate with the data acquisition architecture based on the CERN GBTx transceivers. This paper presents the details of the back-end and interface design and its implementation in the UMC 180 nm CMOS process.

Hybrid foams are materials formed by a core from a standard open cell metal foam that is during the process of electrodeposition coated by a thin layer of different nanocrystalline metals. The material properties of the base metal foam are in this way modified resulting in higher plateau stress and, more importantly, by introduction of strain-rate dependence to its deformation response. In this paper, we used time-lapse X-ray micro-tomography for the mechanical characterization of Ni/Al hybrid foams (aluminium open cell foams with nickel coating layer). To fully understand the effects of the coating layer on the material's effective properties, we compared the compressive response of the base uncoated foam to the response of the material with coating thickness of 50 and 75 μm. Digital volume correlation (DVC) was applied to obtain volumetric strain fields of the deforming micro-structure up to the densification region of the deforming cellular structure. The analysis was performed as a compressive mechanical test with simultaneous observation using X-ray radiography and tomography. A custom design experimental device was used for compression of the foam specimens in several deformation states directly in the X-ray setup. Planar X-ray images were taken during the loading phases and a X-ray tomography was performed at the end of each loading phase (up to engineering strain 22%). The samples were irradiated using micro-focus reflection type X-ray tube and images were taken using a large area flat panel detector. Tomography reconstructions were used for an identification of a strain distribution in the foam using digital volumetric correlation. A comparison of the deformation response of the coated and the uncoated foam in uniaxial quasi-static compression is summarized in the paper.

The micro-pattern gaseous pixel detector, is a promising technology for imaging and particle tracking applications. It is a combination of a gas layer acting as detection medium and a CMOS pixelated readout-chip. As a prevention against discharges we deposit a protection layer on the chip and then integrate on top a micromegas-like amplification structure. With this technology we are able to reconstruct 3D track segments of particles passing through the gas thanks to the functionality of the chip. We have turned a Timepix3 chip into a gaseous pixel detector and tested it at the SPS at Cern. The preliminary results are promising and within the expectations. However, the spark protection layer needs further improvement to make reliable detectors. For this reason, we have created a setup for spark-testing. We present the first results obtained from the lab-measurements along with preliminary results from the testbeam.

The radiation damage effects in silicon segmented detectors caused by X-rays have become recently an important research topic driven mainly by development of new detectors for applications at the European X-ray Free Electron Laser (E-XFEL). However, radiation damage in silicon strip is observed not only after extreme doses up to 1 GGy expected at E-XFEL, but also at doses in the range of tens of Gy, to which the detectors in laboratory instruments like X-ray diffractometers or X-ray spectrometers can be exposed. In this paper we report on investigation of radiation damage effects in a custom developed silicon strip detector used in laboratory diffractometers equipped with X-ray tubes. Our results show that significant degradation of detector performance occurs at low doses, well below 200 Gy, which can be reached during normal operation of laboratory instruments. Degradation of the detector energy resolution can be explained by increasing leakage current and increasing interstrip capacitance of the sensor. Another observed effect caused by accumulation of charge trapped in the surface oxide layer is change of charge division between adjacent strips. In addition, we have observed unexpected anomalies in the annealing process.

JUNGFRAU (adJUstiNg Gain detector FoR the Aramis User station) is a two-dimensional hybrid pixel detector under development for photon science applications at free electron laser and synchrotron facilities. In particular, JUNGFRAU detectors will equip the Aramis end stations of SwissFEL, an X-ray free electron laser currently under construction at the Paul Scherrer Institut in Villigen, Switzerland. JUNGFRAU has been designed specifically to meet the challenges of photon science at XFELs, including high frame rates, single photon sensitivity in combination with a high dynamic range, vacuum compatibility and tilable modules. This has resulted in a charge integrating detector with three dynamically adjusting gains, a low noise of 55 ENC RMS, readout speeds in excess of 2 kHz, single photon sensitivity down to 2 keV (with a signal to noise ratio of 10) and a dynamic range covering four orders of magnitude at 12 keV. Each JUNGFRAU module consists of eight chips of 256 × 256 pixels, each 75 × 75 μm² in size. The chips are arranged in 2 × 4 formation and bump-bonded to a single silicon sensor 320 μm thick, resulting in an active area of approximately 4 × 8 cm² per module. Multi-module vacuum compatible systems comprising up to 16 Mpixels (32 modules) will be used at SwissFEL. The design of SwissFEL and the JUNGFRAU system for the Aramis end station A will be introduced, together with results from early prototypes and a characterisation using the first batch of final JUNGFRAU modules. Plans and first results of the pixel-by-pixel calibration will also be shown. The vacuum compatibility of the JUNGFRAU module is demonstrated for the first time.

The T-REX project of the group of the University of Zaragoza includes a number of R&D and prototyping activities to explore the applicability of gaseous Time Projection Chambers (TPCs) with Micromesh Gas Structures (Micromegas) in rare event searches where the pattern recognition of the signal is crucial for background discrimination. In the CAST experiment (CERN Axion Solar Telescope) a background level as low as 0.8 × 10⁻⁶ counts keV⁻¹ cm⁻² s⁻¹ was achieved. Prototyping and simulations promise a 10⁵ better signal-to-noise ratio than CAST for the future IAXO (International Axion Observatory) using x-ray telescopes. A new strategy is also explored in the search of WIMPS based on high gas pressure: the TREX-DM experiment, a low energy threshold detector. In both cases, axion and WIMP searches, the image of the expected signal is quite simple: a one cluster deposition coming from the magnet bore in the case of axions and, if possible, with a tadpole form in the case of WIMPs. It is the case of double beta decay (DBD) where imaging and pattern recognition play a major role. Results obtained in Xe + trimethylamine (TMA) mixture point to a reduction in electron diffusion which improves the quality of the topological pattern, with a positive impact on the discrimination capability, as shown in TREX-ββ prototype. Microbulk Micromegas are able to image the DBD ionization signature with high quality while, at the same time, measuring its energy deposition with a resolution of at least a ∼ 3% FWHM at the transition energy Q_ββ and even better (up to ∼ 1% FWHM) as extrapolated from low energy events. That makes Micromegas-based HPXe TPC a very competitive technique for the next generation DBD experiments (as PANDAX-III). Here, it will be shown the last results of the TREX project detectors and software concerning Axions, Dark matter and double beta decay.

To exploit the full discovery potential of the Large Hadron Collider an upgrade towards high luminosity (HL-LHC) is scheduled for 2024–25. Simultaneously to the accelerator, the experiments have to adapt to the expected higher particle rates and detector occupancy. Within the next long shutdown in 2019-20 the innermost end-cap regions of the ATLAS Muon spectrometer will be replaced by the New Small Wheels (NSW) including Micromegas detector modules of several m² size.

The Micromegas readout anode boards, representing the core components of the detector, are manufactured in industry, making the NSW Micromegas the first Micro Pattern Gaseous Detector (MPGD) for a major LHC experiment with a crucial industrial contribution. Production of the up to 2.2 m long boards is a serious challenge for industrialization technology and quality control methods.

Ground-based gamma-ray astronomy in the Very High Energy (VHE, E > 100 GeV) regime has fast become one of the most interesting and productive sub-fields of astrophysics today. Utilizing the Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Technique (IACT) to reconstruct the energy and direction of incoming gamma-ray photons from the universe, several source-classes have been revealed by previous and current generations of IACT telescopes (e.g. Whipple, MAGIC, HESS and VERITAS). The next generation pointing IACT experiment, the Cherenkov Telescope Array (CTA), will provide increased sensitivity across a wider energy range and with better angular resolution. With the development of CTA, the future of IACT pointing arrays is being directed towards having more and more telescopes (and hence cameras), and therefore the need to develop low-cost pixels with acceptable light-collection efficiency is clear. One of the primary paths to the above goal is to replace Photomultiplier Tubes (PMTs) with Silicon-PMs (SiPMs) as the pixels in IACT telescope cameras. However SiPMs are not yet mature enough to replace PMTs for several reasons: sensitivity to unwanted longer wavelengths while lacking sensitivity at short wavelengths, small physical area, high cost, optical cross-talk and dark rates. Here we propose a novel method to build relatively low-cost SiPM-based pixels utilising a disk of wavelength-shifting material, which overcomes some of these drawbacks by collecting light over a larger area than standard SiPMs and improving sensitivity to shorter wavelengths while reducing background. We aim to optimise the design of such pixels, integrating them into an actual 7-pixel cluster which will be inserted into a MAGIC camera and tested during real observations. Results of simulations, laboratory measurements and the current status of the cluster design and development will be presented.

In this paper we report the initial results from our second generation of 3D silicon detectors for neutrons. The devices are briefly described and the first functional characterization tests carried out in laboratory before coupling to neutron converter material are reported. Particular emphasis is given to the read-out system used for the suppression of signals induced by γ-rays, that is one of the main issues in neutron detection. Experimental results are discussed with the aid of TCAD simulations.

Eu-doped lutetium oxide (Lu₂O₃:Eu) is one of the densest known scintillator and was reported to have high-conversion efficiency. It is therefore an excellent candidate scintillator to improve the efficiency of high-spatial resolution X-ray imaging detectors at high X-ray energies. The first results of the development of single crystal thin films using the liquid phase epitaxy technique are reported. Several films with thickness in the range 0.5-22 μm were grown and characterized using X-ray diffraction and electron microscopy techniques. The images performances of these films when used as converter screens for X-ray detectors are also presented.

We present the application of a Timepix detector on the VZLUSAT-1 nanosatellite. Timepix is a compact pixel detector (256×256 square pixels, 55×55 μm each) sensitive to hard X-ray radiation. It is suitable for detecting extraterrestrial X-rays due to its low noise characteristics, which enables measuring without special cooling. This project aims to verify the practicality of the detector in conjunction with 1-D Lobster-Eye optics to observe celestial sources between 5 and 20 keV. A modified USB interface (developed by IEAP at CTU in Prague) is used for low-level control of the Timepix. An additional 8-bit Atmel microcontroller is dedicated for commanding the detector and to process the data onboard the satellite. We present software methods for onboard post-processing of captured images, which are suitable for implementation under the constraints of the low-powered embedded hardware. Several measuring modes are prepared for different scenarios including single picture exposure, solar UV-light triggered exposure, and long-term all-sky monitoring. The work has been done within Medipix2 collaboration. The satellite is planned for launch in April 2017 as a part of the QB50 project with an end of life expectancy in 2019.