Past, present and future prospect on microinjection gene transfer in aquaculture

Microinjection is arguably the most direct and reliable gene transfer method to date. Since the development of the first transgenic fish in 1984, microinjection continues to be the most commonly used gene transfer method in aquaculture. Microinjection is used to inject cells, nucleic acid, gene constructs, recombinant DNA, and morpholino oligonucleotides into fish cells, embryos, and larvae. Despite the development of various gene transfer methods, microinjection is preferable. Continuous improvement in micromanipulation tools and micro capillary further develop microinjection method. This review describes the past and present use of microinjection gene transfer methods for genetic manipulation and genetic improvement in fisheries and aquaculture, especially in fish transgenesis. Furthermore, we discuss the future prospects of microinjection method in tandem with recombinant DNA technology and CRISPR-Cas9 and its application in the aquaculture industry.